In 62 BC Caesar became the praetor urbanus and advanced a popularis agenda. The tribune 14Caecilius Metellus Nepos (c.45; fl.67-55 BC), acting for Pompey in Rome, harassed Cicero and with Caesar’s support proposed a bill to summon Pompey home to take command against the Catilinarians and allow him to stand for the consulship in absentia. This would have given Pompey an overwhelming position on his return.
But as Catiline had already been defeated, the proposal was denounced by Metellus’ colleague Cato as an attack on the optimist republic and he gave notice of veto. Nepos nevertheless pushed his bill with such vigour that rioting ensued and martial law (SCU) was passed again. Caesar was suspended from his position as praetor, but he relented and was allowed to return to duty; Nepos returned to Pompey.
Despite Catiline’s death, hearings continued to be held with the aim of revealing and punishing those connected with the conspiracy. Rewards were offered to informers, and Lucius 02Vettius, a friend of Catiline, handed to Novius Niger, examiner in the criminal courts, a list of conspirators that included the name of Caesar. In the Senate, Quintus Curius (2) produced a second list also including the name of Caesar. In the Senate, Caesar refuted the allegation on the grounds that he had revealed the plot to Cicero, who confirmed that this was so. Caesar then used his legal powers to send Vettius to jail and imprison Novius Niger for allowing an accusation in his court against an official of higher rank than himself.
On 3 December a scandal occurred during the Bona Dea (‘Good Goddess’) festival, an event held annually by the Vestal Virgins and other noble women at the house of a senior official. This year it was at Caesar’s house, the official residence of the pontifex maximus. This was a women-only event, but 01Clodius Pulcher (41; fl.68-52 BC), son of 21Claudius Pulcher (cos.79 BC) was said to have been seen there dressed as a woman. Word leaked out and it seems that Pompeia was involved. When the incident was discussed in the Senate, Caesar sent his wife a verbal message that he had divorced her (‘Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion’). At Clodius’ trial the following year, Cicero broke Clodius’ alibi (he claimed to have been out of town), but he was acquitted, it is said, by a heavily bribed jury; Cicero had acquired a dangerous enemy.
In mid-December 62 BC Pompey landed in Brundisium. To allay the fears of those senators who thought that his return would be a repeat of Sulla’s in 83 BC he immediately disbanded his army and travelled to Rome as a private citizen.
Pompey needed to get his settlement of the East ratified and to acquire land for his veterans, but he got a cold reception from the Senate, suspicious of his ambition and of not having had the normal career in civic life. To gain the approval of the optimates, he divorced his wife Mucia Tertia, whose brothers-in-law were prominent populares, and sought to marry a niece of Cato, who was dominant among the senatorial nobility. Cato refused the marriage of his niece and prevented efforts in the Senate to find land for Pompey’s veterans, while Lucullus led the opposition to ratification of the Eastern settlement.
Cato offended the equites by threatening their long-standing immunity from prosecution for bribery when serving as jurors. Also, the equites having bid too much for their contract to collect taxes in the East wanted it renegotiated; Crassus supported them in this but the Senate, led by Cato, refused. Relations between senators and equestrians had soured.
In 61 BC Caesar was appointed as praetoral governor of Ulterior. Before he could leave Rome he had to settle the immense debts incurred by his expensive lifestyle, and Crassus loaned him the huge sum of 830 talents. On his arrival Caesar immediately attacked and defeated the Lusitani. When some fugitives escaped to an offshore island he called up ships from Gades and the people on the island had to surrender. He then used this fleet to overawe and subdue those tribes that had been independent of Rome. He followed these successes with ‘equally good work in civilian administration’. As a result of his campaign he was hailed imperator by his soldiers, which entitled him to be granted a triumph by the Senate. When he returned to Rome with money to spare, there was widespread speculation about his overseas operation, but he could not be forced to answer charges while he remained in office.
The Allobrogian mission in Rome in 63 BC was there to complain about Roman governors plundering their tribe. Two years later, their complaints having been ignored, they attacked Gallia Narbonensis. In retaliation, the governor of the province, Gaius Pomptinus, sent an army under 17Manlius Lentinus to ravage their lands. The chieftain Catugnatos gathered a large force and took it across the Isere River. While Lentinus was besieging the town of Solonium (=La Sone?), Catugnatos arrived and raised the siege, but was in turn surrounded by an army led by Pomptinus. The bulk of the Allobroges warriors were captured, but Catugnatos got away.
In 60 BC Pompey’s ex-legate Lucius Afranius assumed office as a pro-Pompey consul, but had Pompey’s ex-wife Mucia’s brother 13Caecilius Metellus Celer as his hostile colleague. Pompey was hoping that Afranius, whose election according to Cicero had been secured by bribery, would put through both his demands. However, when the optimates under the leadership of Metellus, Lucullus and Cato began to obstruct and quibble over details, and Afranius proved ineffective, Pompey turned to the populares and a tribune 04Flavius brought a land bill before the people.
He proposed that public land and land purchased with the Eastern revenues to be made available to the veterans but also to other citizens in order to win their support. Metellus’ opposition was such that Flavius dragged him off to prison. When Metellus summoned the Senate to assemble there, Pompey gave in and ordered Flavius to release him.
In June, Caesar returned to Rome to celebrate his triumph and to stand for the 59 BC consulship. As a returning general he was not allowed to enter the city until his triumph, but as a consular candidate he needed to cross the pomerium to present himself and begin campaigning. There were precedents for the Senate to grant permission either to stand in absentia or enter the city but Cato, who always resisted men he believed had too much power, denied Caesar this option. Caesar gave up the triumph and entered the city as a candidate. He came top of the poll and Calpurnius10 Bibulus was second.
The Senate’s attempts to thwart the ambitions of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar were now proved to have been in vain. Unable to achieve their objectives individually at some point in 60 BC the three men formed an amicitia, an informal political alliance, known subsequently as the ‘First Triumvirate’.
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