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Astronomy
A Note on Chronology
Contents
Basics
Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
Ecliptic
Solar System
Motions of the Planets
Conjunction and Opposition
Equinoxes and Solstices
Precession and Nutation
Zodiac
Calendars
Early European Astronomy
Greek (7th-2nd Century BC): Introduction, Geocentric Universe
Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
Western Europe
Ancient and Distant Lands (3200-00-1300)
China
Calendars (C)
Star Lists and Charts
Observation Instruments
Egypt
India
Islam
Introduction
Doubts about Ptolemy
Observatories
Mesoamerica
Mesopotamia (A)
Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
16th Century
Cepheids
17th Century
Distances to the Stars
Parallax
Halley’s Comet
Inverse Square Law
Longitude
18th Century
Milky Way
Annual Parallax
Black Holes
Nebulae and the Galaxy
Bode’s Law
Proper Motion
19th Century
Doppler Effect
Magnitude
Spectroscopy
Sunspots
Relativity
20th Century
Big Bang Theory
Expanding Universe
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Radio Astronomy
Appendices
Chronology
Observatories: Alphabetical List
People: Alphabetical List
Beginnings
A Note on Chronology
Contents
Earth and the Universe
Creation of the Universe
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Forming of the Solar System
Galaxies and the Stars
Inflationary Model of the Universe
Nucleosynthesis
Space-Time
Planet Earth
Structure and the Palaeomagnetic Timescale
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
Archaeology
Antiquarians
Greece and Rome
Three-Age System
Ancient and Distant Lands
Aegean
Americas and Oceania
China and India
Egypt
Mesopotamia
Antiquity of Man, Early Man
Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
Geological Time Scale
Continental Drift
Fossils and Dating
Supercontinents
Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction, Taxonomy
Precambrian Supereon (4600-541 mya)
Hadean Eon (4600-4000 mya), Earth molten
Archaean Eon (4000-2500 mya), Stromatolites
Proterozoic Eon (2500-541 mya), Eukaryotes
Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
Ordovician Period (485-443 mya), land plants
Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
Triassic Period (252-201 mya), Lizards
Jurassic Period (201-145 mya)
Dinosaurs: Saurischians (‘lizard-hipped’); Theropods, Sauropodomorphsns
Dinosaurs: Ornithischians (‘bird-hipped’)
Cretaceous Period (145-66.0 mya), Birds
Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
Pleistocene Epoch (2590-11.7 kya); Ice Age, humans
Holocene Epoch (9700 BC-present), Current Interglacial
Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
Hominoids, Hominids, Hominines
Hominins: Australopiths (ape-men), Hominans (humans)
Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
Palaeolithic (‘Old Stone’) Period (3300-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic (‘Middle Stone’) Period (11.7-8.5 kya)
Neolithic (‘New Stone’) Period (8.5-7.5 kya), Pottery
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Bronze Age (3200-500 BC)
Iron Age (1200 BC-Present)
Appendices
Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
Scheme
Sequences
People: Alphabetical List
Animal Classification: Scheme
Animal Classification: Sequences
Archaeology: Chronology
Evolution of Life: Chronology
People: Alphabetical List (B)
Plant Classification
Ancient Europe
A Note on Chronology
CONTENTS
An Outline History of Ancient Europe
Physical Geography of Europe
Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-present)
Introduction
Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
Chronology
Prehistory (1400 kya-3500 BC)
Palaeolithic Period (1400-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (6400-1750 BC), Late (Copper) Neolithic (5500-1750 BC) Megalithic Monuments (4500-1500 BC)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Bronze Age (3200-500 BC)
Iron Age (500-00-800)
NORTHWEST EUROPE (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
West Nordic Region
01 Greenland
02 Iceland
03 Faroe Islands
Ireland and Britain
Introduction
04 Ireland
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (C2: 12.5-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (C2: 9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (C1: 4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
Late Iron Age (100-400)
Chronology
05 BRITAIN
05A Scotland
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
Roman Period (43-407)
Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
Invasion (AD 71)
Mons Graupius (83/4)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Invasion (209)
Picti and Scoti
Scottish Islands
Introduction (Scottish Islands)
Hebrides
Northern Isles
Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
WALES AND ENGLAND
05B Wales
Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
Roman Period (48-410)
05C England
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Introduction (e)
Neolithic Monuments
Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, Bronze Age
Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
Introduction
Ferrous Metallurgy
Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
Roman Influence
Celtic Kings
Roman Period (43-410)
Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
Northern Frontier (79-184)
Introduction
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
Gallic Empire (260-274)
Carausian Revolt (286-296)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Barbarian Conspiracy (367-369)
Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
Associated Islands
Isle of Man
Isles of Scilly
Isle of Wight
Channel Islands
NORTHERN EUROPE (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
Introduction (Scandinavia)
06 Denmark
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
07 Norway (W)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age, Roman Period
08 Sweden (E)
Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (410)
09 Finland
Introduction (Finland)
Mesolithic Period (8900-5300 BC)
Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-400)
NORTHEAST EUROPE – IN PREPARATION
East European Plain [1/2]
CONTENTS
Introduction
Baltic States
Introduction
10 ESTONIA (Founded: 18.11.1918)
Introduction
Mesolithic Period (9000-5000 BC)
Neolithic Period, Late Neolithic
Bronze Age (1800-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-50)
Roman Period (50-450)
11 LATVIA (Founded: 18.11.1918)
Introduction
Late Palaeolithic Period (14,000-9700 BC)
Mesolithic Period (9700-5400 BC)
Neolithic Period (5400-1800 BC)
Bronze Age (L) (1800-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-50) (L)
Roman Period (50-400) (L)
12 LITHUANIA (Founded: 1253)
Introduction, A Note on Tables, A Note on Dating
Final Palaeolithic (13,000-9700 BC)
Early Mesolithic Period (9700-5000 BC)
Ceramic Mesolithic Period (5000-2900 BC)
Neolithic Period (2900-1800 BC)
Early Bronze Age (1800-1100 BC)
Late Bronze Age (1100-c.500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (c.500-00-c.50)
Roman Period (c.50-c.400 AD)
RUSSIAN FEDERATION (≡RUSSIA)
13 EUROPEAN RUSSIA (Founded: c.880)
WESTERN EUROPE
14 NETHERLANDS
15 BELGIUM
16 FRANCE
17 MONACO
18 LUXEMBURG
CENTRAL EUROPE
19 GERMANY
20 POLAND
21 CZECH REPUBLIC
22 SWITZERLAND
23 LIECHTENSTEIN
24 AUSTRIA
25 SLOVAKIA
26 HUNGARY
EASTERN EUROPE
East European Plain [2/2]
27 BELARUS
28 UKRAINE
29 MOLDOVA
SOUTHWEST EUROPE
30 ANDORRA
31 SPAIN
32 PORTUGAL
SOUTHERN EUROPE
33 SLOVENIA
34 SAN MARINO
35 ITALY
36 VATICAN CITY
37 MALTA
SOUTHEAST EUROPE
38 CROATIA
39 BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
40 SERBIA
41 ROMANIA
42 MONTENEGRO
43 KOSOVO
44 BULGARIA
45 ALBANIA
46 N0RTH MACEDONIA
47 GREECE
48 EUROPEAN TURKEY
49 *CYPRUS
Ancient Near East
A Note on Chronology
CONTENTS
An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
Egypt (3050-00-646)
Physical Geography of Egypt
Prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
The Nile
Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
First Intermediate Period
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
Introduction
Nubia
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
Thutmosids
Ramessids, Sea People
Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC): Thebes and Tanis, Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians
Late Period (664-332 BC)
Saites
Persians and Greeks
Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
Roman Period (30-00-395)
Byzantine Period, (395-646)
MESOPOTAMIA (NE) (c.2900-00-637)
Physical Geography of Mesopotamia
Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC); Kish I-IV, Uruk I-III, Ur I- II, Lagash-I and Umma
Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
Gutian Period (c.2141-c.2050 BC) Ur III Period (c.2047-c.1940 BC)
Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
Introduction
Eshnunna, Assur, Mari and the Northern Kingdom
Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC): Hammurabi, Hammurabi’s Successors
Middle Babylonian Period (c.1531-729 BC): Kassites, Post-Kassite Rule
Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
Neo-Babylonian Period (627-539 BC); Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II, Fall of Babylon
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (331-129 BC), Seleucus-I
Parthian Period (129-00-224)
Sassanian Period (224-637)
Assyria (c.2000-608 BC)
Physical Geography of Assyria, Prehistory of Assyria
Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
Middle Assyrian Period (c.1353-935 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC), Fall of Nineveh
Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
Physical Geography of Asia Minor
Prehistory (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
Palaeolithic Period (1000-11.6 kya)
Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
Chalcolithic Period (c.6000-c.3300 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction
Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
Troy (c.3000-c.100 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
Greek Migrations, Neo-Hittites
Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
Lydia
Caria
Phrygia, Lycia
Achaemenid Period (546-333 BC)
Introduction
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
Greek Period (333-190 BC)
Introduction
Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
Pergamum (281-129 BC)
Bithynia (376-74 BC)
Galatia (278-25 BC)
Cappadocia (331-00-17)
Pontus (302-00-64)
Commagene (163-00-72)
Armenia (570-00-114)
Roman Period (190-00-395)
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Syria (3300-00-637)
Physical Geography of Syria
prehistory
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Ebla and Mari
Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
Mitanni (1500-1260 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
Achaemenid Period, Greek Period; Seleucids
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Byzantine Period (395-637)
Phoenicia (c.3300-00-637)
Physical Geography
Prehistory
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC): Tyre, Assyrians, Babylonians
Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
Greek Period (332-65 BC)
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Byzantine Period (395-637) (Ph)
Palestine (c.3300-00-638)
Physical Geography of Palestine
Prehistory
Elamite Period (c.3200-539 BC); Awan, Simashki, Epartid, Kidinuid, Igehalkid, Shutrukid, and Humban-Tahrid Dynasties
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction
Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC)
Israelites, Judges
Philistines (c.1175-732 BC)
United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
Divided Monarchy; Houses of Jeroboam, Baasha, Zimri, Omri, Jehu, Shallum and Menahem, Pekah and Hoshea
Fall of Judah (586 BC)
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (333-63 BC)
Introduction
Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
Nabataeans (312-00-106)
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
Herod the Great
Jesus of Nazareth
Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
Jewish Revolts; First, Kitos, Bar Kokhba, Against Gallus
Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
Byzantine Period (395-638), Samaritan Revolts (484-572)
Persia (c.3200-00-651)
Physical Geography of Persia
Prehistory; Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods
Median Period (728-549 BC)
Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
Cyrus II the Great (c.46; r.559-530 BC)
Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC)
Darius-I (c.64; r.522-486 BC)
Xerxes-I (c.54; r.486-465 BC)
Later Achaemenids
Greek Period (330-238 BC)
Parthian Arsacid Dynasty (238-00-224)
Introduction
Armenia and Rome
Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
Introduction (p)
Byzantium
Appendices
Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
Ancient Greece
A Note on Chronology
An Outline History of Ancient Greece
Physical Geography of Greece
Prehistory of Greece (700 kya-1350 BC): Palaeolithic, Neolithic
Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
Introduction
Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
Mycenaean Civilisation (c.1600-c.1100 BC)
Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
Migrations to Asia Minor
Early Archaic Period (c.750-546 BC)
Homer (c.750 BC)
Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Rise of the Polis (c.800-c.500 BC)
Colonial Expansion (c.750-c.550 BC)
Orientalizing Period (c.720-c.620 BC)
Panhellenism,Tyranny
Northern Greece
Thessaly, Epirus
Thrace, Macedonia
Central Greece
Acarnania, Aetolia, Doris, Malis, Locris
Phocis (Delphi)
Boeotia (Thebes)
Attica (Athens)
Introduction
Cylon, Draco, Solon
Pisistratus and his Sons (c.546-c.510 BC)
Cleisthenes
Aegina, Euboea
Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
Introduction
Megaris (Megara)
Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
Achaea, Elis, Arcadia
Argolis (Argos)
Laconia (Sparta)
Messenia (Messene)
Cyclades; Paros, Delos
Eastern Aegean
Ionia
Chios
Samos
Miletus
Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
Aeolis, Lesbos
Black Sea, Greek Cities: Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
North Africa, Greek City: Himera
Southern Italy, Greek Cities: Ischia, Cumae, Sybaris and Croton
Sicily, Greek Cities: Syracuse, Gela
Western Greeks (c.580-446 BC) [1/2]
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
Marathon (490 BC)
Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
Salamis (480 BC)
Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
First Sicilian War (480 BC), Himera
Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
Delian League (478-454 BC)
Introduction
Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
Third Messenian War (464-455 BC)
Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
Egypt
First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
Early Battles
Sparta
After the Truce
Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
Samian Revolt
Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
Incident at Plataea, Pentecontaetia
Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
Introduction
Year One (431/0 BC), Aegina
Year Two (430/429 BC), Plague at Athens
Year Three (429/8 BC); Plataea, Spartolus, Stratus, Rhium, Naupactus
Year Four (428/427 BC), Mytilene
Year Five (427/426 BC), Corcyra
Year Six (426/425 BC); Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
Year Seven (425/4 BC); Pylos, Sphacteria, Solygeia
Year Eight (424/423 BC); Megara, Delium
Year Nine (423/2BC); Scione, Laodocium
Year Ten (422/421 BC), Amphipolis
Interlude (421-413 BC)
Year Eleven (421/420 BC), Peace of Nicias
Year Twelve (420/19 BC), Alliance; Year Thirteen (419/8 BC), Epidaurus
Year Fourteen (418/7 BC), Mantinea
Year Fifteen (417/416 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/415 BC), Melos
Year Seventeen (415/4 BC); Sicilian Expedition, Battle at Anapos River
Year Eighteen (414/3 BC); Sicilian Expedition, Investment of Syracuse
Year Nineteen (413/412 BC); Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
Introduction
Year Twenty (412/1 BC); Panormus, Miletus, Chios, Syme
Year Twenty-One (411/410 BC); Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
Year Twenty-Two (410/409 BC), Cyzicus
Year Twenty-Three (409/8 BC); Pylos, Cerata
Year Twenty-Four (408/7 BC), Byzantium
Year Twenty-Five (407/6 BC); Abdera, Thasos
Year Twenty-Six (406/405 BC); Notium, Arginusae
Year Twenty-Seven (405/4 BC), Aegospotami, Fall of Athens
Western Greeks [2/2]
Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
Second Sicilian War (410-367 BC)
Syracuse
Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
Theban Hegemony (371-362 BC)
Shifting Alliances
Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
Subjugation of the Eastern Satrapies: Aria, Drangian and Arachosia
Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC): War against Perdiccas (321-319 BC); Cappadocia, Egypt, Nora
Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
Roman Period (146-00-395)
Julius Caesar (55; r.46-44 BC), Marc Antony (53; fl.44-30 BC)
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
Roman Republic
A Note on Chronology
An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
Neolithic Chalcolithic
Early Iron Age (950-c.753 BC)
Early Peoples of Italy
Villanovans, Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Bronze Age (2300-950 BC)
Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
Introduction
Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
Introduction
Traditional Story (753-509 BC)
Introduction
Early Kings of Rome (753-617 BC)
Etruscan Kings of Rome 616-509 BC
Fall of the Monarchy (509 BC)
Chronology
Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
Society [1/2]
Family
Religion, Plebeians
Government [1/3]
Assemblies
Magistrates
Conflict of the Orders (494-287 BC)
Introduction (rr)
Sessations of the Plebeians
Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
Sabines, Triple Alliance
Volsci and the Aequi
Conquest of Veii (483-396 BC)
Gallic Invasion of Rome
Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
Aequi, Volsci
Etruscans, Latins and the Hernici
Tibur, Gauls [1/2], Sabellians
Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
First Samnite War
Second (=Great) Samnite War
Second Latin War (341-338 BC)
Third Samnite War
Gauls [2/2]
Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
Introduction
Pyrrhic War
End of Pre-Roman Italy (273-264 BC)
Roads, Aqueducts
Chronology
Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica
North Africa
Return to Sicily
Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
Introduction
Sicily
Sardina
Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina [1/2]
Illyria: First and Second wars with Rome
Spain
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
Preliminaries
War in Spain (218-201 BC) [1/7]
Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy
Hannibal in Southern Italy [1/2]
Revolt in Sardinia, War in Spain [2/7]
Revolt of Syracuse
First Macedonian War
War in Spain [3/7]
Hannibal in Central and Southern Italy, Carthaginian Siegecraft
Hannibal in Southern Italy (215-209 BC) [2/2]
War in Africa
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Gallia Cisalpina [2/2]
Liguria (201-154 BC)
Sardinia and Corsica (198-163 BC)
Venetia
Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
Hellenistic East
Second Macedonian War
Laconian War (195 BC)
Roman-Syrian War (192-188 BC)
Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
Achaean War (146 BC)
Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
Introduction
First Celtiberian War, Second Celtiberian War
Lusitanian War
Carthage (196-146 BC)
Masinissa (196-149 BC)
Third Punic War
Third Celtiberian War (=2nd Numantine) War (143-133 BC)
Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
Government [2/3]
Senators, Equites
Magistrates, Provinces [1/2]
Society [2/2]
Slaves, Freedmen, Farmers
Roman Citizenship, First Servile War
Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
Land Commission
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
Events in Asia Minor, Gaul and the Balkans
Pergamum (133-126 BC)
Gallia Narbonensis (125-123 BC)
Northern Border (129-110 BC)
Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC)
Introduction
Jugurthine War
Cimbrian War (113-101 BC)
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
Second Servile War (104-100 BC), Sicily
Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
Introduction, Drusus
Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War
Sulla’s capture of Rome
Second Mithridatic War
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
Macedonia (97-62 BC)
Third Servile War (73-71 BC)
Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Pompey, Consulship (70, 55, 52 BC)
Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 55; fl.85-44 BC)
Introduction
Publius Clodius Pulcher
Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
Helvetii
Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
Death of Publius Clodius Pulcher
Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
Caesar’s Civil War (49-45 BC)
Caesar’s march on Rome
Campaign in Illyria (49 BC) [1/3]
War in Egypt (48/7 BC)
Campaign in Spain (45 BC) [2/2]
Gaius Octavius (=Octavian; 76; fl.47-00-14)
Antony’s Civil War, the Second Triumvirate
Treaties of Brundisium and Misenum
Octavian’s Illyrian Campaign
Antony in the East (41-30 BC)
Parthian Invasion
Last years of the Republic (30-27 BC)
Appendices (rr)
Prehistory, Bronze Age (rr), Early Iron Age (rr): Chronology (850 kya-770 BC) (rr)
Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
Roman Family Names
Aurelius (28)
Claudius (46)
Cornelius (61)
Flavius (81)
Julius (49)
Roman Empire
A Note on Chronology
An Outline History of the Roman Empire (27-00-476)
Early Roman Empire (27-00-193):
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
01 Augustus
Second Settlement of Augustus
Succession, Reforms
Eastern Provinces and Frontiers
Western Provinces and Frontiers
Introduction
Illyrian Revolt, Teutoburg Forest
02 Tiberius
Introduction
Germanicus
Revolts in the West
Sejanus
03 Caligula
04 Claudius-I
Introduction
Valeria Messalina
Julia Agrippina the Younger
Freedmen, Jews, Provinces
Invasion of Britain
05 Nero
Introduction
Revolt in Britain, Boudicca
Nero’s Parthian War [1/5]
Nero’s Despotism
First Jewish Revolt [Part 1/2]
End of the Dynasty
Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
06 Galba
07 Otho
08 Vitellius
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
09 Vespasian
Rhine-Danube Frontier [1/5]
First Jewish Revolt [Part 2/2]
Further conquest in Britain [1/3]
Adjustments in the East, Domestic
10 Titus
Further conquest in Britain [2/3]
11 Domitian
Introduction
Rhine-Danube Frontier [2/5], Final Years of the Dynasty
Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
12 Nerva
Accession
13 Trajan
Introduction, Dacian Wars
Trajan’s Parthian War [2/5], Kitos (Second Jewish) Revolt
14 Hadrian
Introduction, Third Jewish Revolt, Succession
15 Antoninus Pius
Further conquests in Britain, Armenia
North Africa, Egypt and the Rhine-Danube Frontier [3/5]
16 Lucius Verus, Lucius Verus’ Parthian War [3/5]
17 Marcus Aurelius
First Marcomannic War
Cassius (usurper)
Second Marcomannic War (177-180)
18 Commodus
Conspiracies, Dacia and Britain
Marcus Aurelius Cleander, Megalomania
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
19 Pertinax, 20 Didius Julianus
Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
Severan Dynasty (193-211)
21*Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus’ Civil War, [1 of 12]; Septimius Albinus (usurper) [1/2]
Septimius Severus’ Civil War, [1 of 12]: Pescennius Niger, Albinus [2/2]
Septimius Severus’ Parthian War [4/5]
North Africa: Proconsularis, Mauretania and Numidia
Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
22*Caracalla, 23*Geta
Introduction (RR)
Constitutio Antoniniana
Alamanni and Goths, Caracalla’s Parthian War [5/5]
Non-Dynastic (217-218)
24*Macrinus, 25*Diadumenian
Severan Dynasty Restored
26 Elagabalus
27 Severus Alexander, Sassanid [1/9] and Alamanni [1/3] Wars
Military Anarchy (235-284)
28 Maximinus-I Thrax
29*Gordian-I, 30*Gordian II, 31*Balbinus, 32*Pupienus; Maximinus’ Civil War [2/2]
33 Gordian III Pius; Goths and Carpi, Gordian III’s Sassanid War, [2/9]
34 Philip-I the Arab, 35 Philip II: Emperors
36 Decius, 37 Herennius Etruscus; Persecution of Christians, Decius’ Gothic War [1/6]
38*Hostilian, 39*Trebonianus Gallus,Volusianus, 40*Aemilianus, 41 Aemilianus
42*Valerian: Gothic War [2/6], Sassanid War [3/9]
43*Gallienus, 44*Saloninus; Rhine-Danube Frontier [4/5]; Usurpers, Gallienus’ Gothic War [3/6]
45 Claudius II Gothicus
46 Aurelian
Rhine-Danube Frontier [5/5], Aurelian’s Juthungine War
Palmyrene Empire, End of the Gallic Empire
47 Tacitus, 48 Florianus, 49 Probus
50*CARUS, Carus’ Sassanid War [4/9]
Late Roman Empire (284-476)
53*Diocletian, 54*Maximian
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Britannic Empire (286-296)
Galerius’ Sassanid War (297-298 [5/9]
Christianity [1/3]
Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
55*Constantius-I Chlorus, 56*Galerius, 57*Severus, 58*Maxentius, 59*Constantine-I, 60*Licinius, 61*Maximinus II Daia
TETRARCHIC WARS (306-324)
Introduction
Maxentius/Severus’ Civil War [4/12]
Constantine-I/Maxentius’ Civil War [5/12]
Licinius/Maximinus II Dias Civil War (313) [6/12]
Constantine-I/Licinius’ (1st) Civil War (316), [7/12]
Constantine-I/Licinius’ (324) (2nd) Civil War, [8/12]
Constantine-I Sole Ruler
Christianity [2/3], Constantinople, Prefectures, Succession
62*Constantine II, 63*Constans, 64*Constantius II
Introduction, Christianity [3/3]
Constantius II: Sassanid War [6/9], Civil War [9/12]
65*Julian
Julian’s Alamanni War [2/3], Julian’s Civil War [10/12]
Julian’s Sassanid War, [7/9]
66 Jovian
Valentinian-Theodosian Dynasty (364-455)
67*Valentinian-I, 68 Valens
Procopius (usurper), Valentinian-I’s Alamanni War [3/3]
Valens’ First Gothic War [4/6]
69*Gratian
Britain, the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’; Valens and Persia, Firmus
70*Valentinian II
Valens’ Second Gothic War [5/6]
75*Honorius
Alaric’s Second invasion of Greece [2/2]
76*Theodosius II
Britannic Revolt, Death of Stilicho, Anthemius
77*Constantine III, 78*Constans II
Introduction
More Usurpers, Burgundian Kingdom
Visigoth Kingdom, Frankish Kingdom
80*Valentinian III
Valentinian III, Flavius Aetius [1/2]
Flavius Aetius [2/2]
Theodosius II’s (2nd) Sassanian War [9/9]
81*Marcian
Gepid Kingdom, Heruli Kingdom, Sciri Kingdom
Non-dynastic (455-476) (W) and the Leonid Dynasty (455-518) (E)
83 Avitus
87 Anthemius
Introduction, Aspar
88 Olybrius, 89 Glycerius
94 Romulus Augustulus; 95 Zeno [2/2], Odoacer
Appendices
Chronology: Roman Empire
Chronology: Roman Emperors
Chronology: Roman Usurpers
HOME
Astronomy
A Note on Chronology
Contents
Basics
Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
Ecliptic
Solar System
Motions of the Planets
Conjunction and Opposition
Equinoxes and Solstices
Precession and Nutation
Zodiac
Calendars
Early European Astronomy
Greek (7th-2nd Century BC): Introduction, Geocentric Universe
Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
Western Europe
Ancient and Distant Lands (3200-00-1300)
China
Calendars (C)
Star Lists and Charts
Observation Instruments
Egypt
India
Islam
Introduction
Doubts about Ptolemy
Observatories
Mesoamerica
Mesopotamia (A)
Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
16th Century
Cepheids
17th Century
Distances to the Stars
Parallax
Halley’s Comet
Inverse Square Law
Longitude
18th Century
Milky Way
Annual Parallax
Black Holes
Nebulae and the Galaxy
Bode’s Law
Proper Motion
19th Century
Doppler Effect
Magnitude
Spectroscopy
Sunspots
Relativity
20th Century
Big Bang Theory
Expanding Universe
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Radio Astronomy
Appendices
Chronology
Observatories: Alphabetical List
People: Alphabetical List
Beginnings
A Note on Chronology
Contents
Earth and the Universe
Creation of the Universe
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Forming of the Solar System
Galaxies and the Stars
Inflationary Model of the Universe
Nucleosynthesis
Space-Time
Planet Earth
Structure and the Palaeomagnetic Timescale
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
Archaeology
Antiquarians
Greece and Rome
Three-Age System
Ancient and Distant Lands
Aegean
Americas and Oceania
China and India
Egypt
Mesopotamia
Antiquity of Man, Early Man
Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
Geological Time Scale
Continental Drift
Fossils and Dating
Supercontinents
Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction, Taxonomy
Precambrian Supereon (4600-541 mya)
Hadean Eon (4600-4000 mya), Earth molten
Archaean Eon (4000-2500 mya), Stromatolites
Proterozoic Eon (2500-541 mya), Eukaryotes
Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
Ordovician Period (485-443 mya), land plants
Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
Triassic Period (252-201 mya), Lizards
Jurassic Period (201-145 mya)
Dinosaurs: Saurischians (‘lizard-hipped’); Theropods, Sauropodomorphsns
Dinosaurs: Ornithischians (‘bird-hipped’)
Cretaceous Period (145-66.0 mya), Birds
Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
Pleistocene Epoch (2590-11.7 kya); Ice Age, humans
Holocene Epoch (9700 BC-present), Current Interglacial
Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
Hominoids, Hominids, Hominines
Hominins: Australopiths (ape-men), Hominans (humans)
Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
Palaeolithic (‘Old Stone’) Period (3300-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic (‘Middle Stone’) Period (11.7-8.5 kya)
Neolithic (‘New Stone’) Period (8.5-7.5 kya), Pottery
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Bronze Age (3200-500 BC)
Iron Age (1200 BC-Present)
Appendices
Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
Scheme
Sequences
People: Alphabetical List
Animal Classification: Scheme
Animal Classification: Sequences
Archaeology: Chronology
Evolution of Life: Chronology
People: Alphabetical List (B)
Plant Classification
Ancient Europe
A Note on Chronology
CONTENTS
An Outline History of Ancient Europe
Physical Geography of Europe
Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-present)
Introduction
Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
Chronology
Prehistory (1400 kya-3500 BC)
Palaeolithic Period (1400-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (6400-1750 BC), Late (Copper) Neolithic (5500-1750 BC) Megalithic Monuments (4500-1500 BC)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Bronze Age (3200-500 BC)
Iron Age (500-00-800)
NORTHWEST EUROPE (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
West Nordic Region
01 Greenland
02 Iceland
03 Faroe Islands
Ireland and Britain
Introduction
04 Ireland
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (C2: 12.5-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (C2: 9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (C1: 4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
Late Iron Age (100-400)
Chronology
05 BRITAIN
05A Scotland
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
Roman Period (43-407)
Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
Invasion (AD 71)
Mons Graupius (83/4)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Invasion (209)
Picti and Scoti
Scottish Islands
Introduction (Scottish Islands)
Hebrides
Northern Isles
Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
WALES AND ENGLAND
05B Wales
Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
Roman Period (48-410)
05C England
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Introduction (e)
Neolithic Monuments
Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, Bronze Age
Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
Introduction
Ferrous Metallurgy
Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
Roman Influence
Celtic Kings
Roman Period (43-410)
Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
Northern Frontier (79-184)
Introduction
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
Gallic Empire (260-274)
Carausian Revolt (286-296)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Barbarian Conspiracy (367-369)
Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
Associated Islands
Isle of Man
Isles of Scilly
Isle of Wight
Channel Islands
NORTHERN EUROPE (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
Introduction (Scandinavia)
06 Denmark
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
07 Norway (W)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age, Roman Period
08 Sweden (E)
Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (410)
09 Finland
Introduction (Finland)
Mesolithic Period (8900-5300 BC)
Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-400)
NORTHEAST EUROPE – IN PREPARATION
East European Plain [1/2]
CONTENTS
Introduction
Baltic States
Introduction
10 ESTONIA (Founded: 18.11.1918)
Introduction
Mesolithic Period (9000-5000 BC)
Neolithic Period, Late Neolithic
Bronze Age (1800-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-50)
Roman Period (50-450)
11 LATVIA (Founded: 18.11.1918)
Introduction
Late Palaeolithic Period (14,000-9700 BC)
Mesolithic Period (9700-5400 BC)
Neolithic Period (5400-1800 BC)
Bronze Age (L) (1800-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-50) (L)
Roman Period (50-400) (L)
12 LITHUANIA (Founded: 1253)
Introduction, A Note on Tables, A Note on Dating
Final Palaeolithic (13,000-9700 BC)
Early Mesolithic Period (9700-5000 BC)
Ceramic Mesolithic Period (5000-2900 BC)
Neolithic Period (2900-1800 BC)
Early Bronze Age (1800-1100 BC)
Late Bronze Age (1100-c.500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (c.500-00-c.50)
Roman Period (c.50-c.400 AD)
RUSSIAN FEDERATION (≡RUSSIA)
13 EUROPEAN RUSSIA (Founded: c.880)
WESTERN EUROPE
14 NETHERLANDS
15 BELGIUM
16 FRANCE
17 MONACO
18 LUXEMBURG
CENTRAL EUROPE
19 GERMANY
20 POLAND
21 CZECH REPUBLIC
22 SWITZERLAND
23 LIECHTENSTEIN
24 AUSTRIA
25 SLOVAKIA
26 HUNGARY
EASTERN EUROPE
East European Plain [2/2]
27 BELARUS
28 UKRAINE
29 MOLDOVA
SOUTHWEST EUROPE
30 ANDORRA
31 SPAIN
32 PORTUGAL
SOUTHERN EUROPE
33 SLOVENIA
34 SAN MARINO
35 ITALY
36 VATICAN CITY
37 MALTA
SOUTHEAST EUROPE
38 CROATIA
39 BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
40 SERBIA
41 ROMANIA
42 MONTENEGRO
43 KOSOVO
44 BULGARIA
45 ALBANIA
46 N0RTH MACEDONIA
47 GREECE
48 EUROPEAN TURKEY
49 *CYPRUS
Ancient Near East
A Note on Chronology
CONTENTS
An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
Egypt (3050-00-646)
Physical Geography of Egypt
Prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
The Nile
Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
First Intermediate Period
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
Introduction
Nubia
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
Thutmosids
Ramessids, Sea People
Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC): Thebes and Tanis, Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians
Late Period (664-332 BC)
Saites
Persians and Greeks
Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
Roman Period (30-00-395)
Byzantine Period, (395-646)
MESOPOTAMIA (NE) (c.2900-00-637)
Physical Geography of Mesopotamia
Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC); Kish I-IV, Uruk I-III, Ur I- II, Lagash-I and Umma
Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
Gutian Period (c.2141-c.2050 BC) Ur III Period (c.2047-c.1940 BC)
Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
Introduction
Eshnunna, Assur, Mari and the Northern Kingdom
Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC): Hammurabi, Hammurabi’s Successors
Middle Babylonian Period (c.1531-729 BC): Kassites, Post-Kassite Rule
Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
Neo-Babylonian Period (627-539 BC); Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II, Fall of Babylon
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (331-129 BC), Seleucus-I
Parthian Period (129-00-224)
Sassanian Period (224-637)
Assyria (c.2000-608 BC)
Physical Geography of Assyria, Prehistory of Assyria
Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
Middle Assyrian Period (c.1353-935 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC), Fall of Nineveh
Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
Physical Geography of Asia Minor
Prehistory (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
Palaeolithic Period (1000-11.6 kya)
Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
Chalcolithic Period (c.6000-c.3300 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction
Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
Troy (c.3000-c.100 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
Greek Migrations, Neo-Hittites
Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
Lydia
Caria
Phrygia, Lycia
Achaemenid Period (546-333 BC)
Introduction
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
Greek Period (333-190 BC)
Introduction
Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
Pergamum (281-129 BC)
Bithynia (376-74 BC)
Galatia (278-25 BC)
Cappadocia (331-00-17)
Pontus (302-00-64)
Commagene (163-00-72)
Armenia (570-00-114)
Roman Period (190-00-395)
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Syria (3300-00-637)
Physical Geography of Syria
prehistory
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Ebla and Mari
Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
Mitanni (1500-1260 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
Achaemenid Period, Greek Period; Seleucids
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Byzantine Period (395-637)
Phoenicia (c.3300-00-637)
Physical Geography
Prehistory
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC): Tyre, Assyrians, Babylonians
Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
Greek Period (332-65 BC)
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Byzantine Period (395-637) (Ph)
Palestine (c.3300-00-638)
Physical Geography of Palestine
Prehistory
Elamite Period (c.3200-539 BC); Awan, Simashki, Epartid, Kidinuid, Igehalkid, Shutrukid, and Humban-Tahrid Dynasties
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction
Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC)
Israelites, Judges
Philistines (c.1175-732 BC)
United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
Divided Monarchy; Houses of Jeroboam, Baasha, Zimri, Omri, Jehu, Shallum and Menahem, Pekah and Hoshea
Fall of Judah (586 BC)
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (333-63 BC)
Introduction
Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
Nabataeans (312-00-106)
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
Herod the Great
Jesus of Nazareth
Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
Jewish Revolts; First, Kitos, Bar Kokhba, Against Gallus
Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
Byzantine Period (395-638), Samaritan Revolts (484-572)
Persia (c.3200-00-651)
Physical Geography of Persia
Prehistory; Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods
Median Period (728-549 BC)
Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
Cyrus II the Great (c.46; r.559-530 BC)
Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC)
Darius-I (c.64; r.522-486 BC)
Xerxes-I (c.54; r.486-465 BC)
Later Achaemenids
Greek Period (330-238 BC)
Parthian Arsacid Dynasty (238-00-224)
Introduction
Armenia and Rome
Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
Introduction (p)
Byzantium
Appendices
Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
Ancient Greece
A Note on Chronology
An Outline History of Ancient Greece
Physical Geography of Greece
Prehistory of Greece (700 kya-1350 BC): Palaeolithic, Neolithic
Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
Introduction
Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
Mycenaean Civilisation (c.1600-c.1100 BC)
Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
Migrations to Asia Minor
Early Archaic Period (c.750-546 BC)
Homer (c.750 BC)
Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Rise of the Polis (c.800-c.500 BC)
Colonial Expansion (c.750-c.550 BC)
Orientalizing Period (c.720-c.620 BC)
Panhellenism,Tyranny
Northern Greece
Thessaly, Epirus
Thrace, Macedonia
Central Greece
Acarnania, Aetolia, Doris, Malis, Locris
Phocis (Delphi)
Boeotia (Thebes)
Attica (Athens)
Introduction
Cylon, Draco, Solon
Pisistratus and his Sons (c.546-c.510 BC)
Cleisthenes
Aegina, Euboea
Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
Introduction
Megaris (Megara)
Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
Achaea, Elis, Arcadia
Argolis (Argos)
Laconia (Sparta)
Messenia (Messene)
Cyclades; Paros, Delos
Eastern Aegean
Ionia
Chios
Samos
Miletus
Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
Aeolis, Lesbos
Black Sea, Greek Cities: Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
North Africa, Greek City: Himera
Southern Italy, Greek Cities: Ischia, Cumae, Sybaris and Croton
Sicily, Greek Cities: Syracuse, Gela
Western Greeks (c.580-446 BC) [1/2]
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
Marathon (490 BC)
Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
Salamis (480 BC)
Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
First Sicilian War (480 BC), Himera
Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
Delian League (478-454 BC)
Introduction
Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
Third Messenian War (464-455 BC)
Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
Egypt
First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
Early Battles
Sparta
After the Truce
Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
Samian Revolt
Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
Incident at Plataea, Pentecontaetia
Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
Introduction
Year One (431/0 BC), Aegina
Year Two (430/429 BC), Plague at Athens
Year Three (429/8 BC); Plataea, Spartolus, Stratus, Rhium, Naupactus
Year Four (428/427 BC), Mytilene
Year Five (427/426 BC), Corcyra
Year Six (426/425 BC); Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
Year Seven (425/4 BC); Pylos, Sphacteria, Solygeia
Year Eight (424/423 BC); Megara, Delium
Year Nine (423/2BC); Scione, Laodocium
Year Ten (422/421 BC), Amphipolis
Interlude (421-413 BC)
Year Eleven (421/420 BC), Peace of Nicias
Year Twelve (420/19 BC), Alliance; Year Thirteen (419/8 BC), Epidaurus
Year Fourteen (418/7 BC), Mantinea
Year Fifteen (417/416 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/415 BC), Melos
Year Seventeen (415/4 BC); Sicilian Expedition, Battle at Anapos River
Year Eighteen (414/3 BC); Sicilian Expedition, Investment of Syracuse
Year Nineteen (413/412 BC); Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
Introduction
Year Twenty (412/1 BC); Panormus, Miletus, Chios, Syme
Year Twenty-One (411/410 BC); Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
Year Twenty-Two (410/409 BC), Cyzicus
Year Twenty-Three (409/8 BC); Pylos, Cerata
Year Twenty-Four (408/7 BC), Byzantium
Year Twenty-Five (407/6 BC); Abdera, Thasos
Year Twenty-Six (406/405 BC); Notium, Arginusae
Year Twenty-Seven (405/4 BC), Aegospotami, Fall of Athens
Western Greeks [2/2]
Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
Second Sicilian War (410-367 BC)
Syracuse
Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
Theban Hegemony (371-362 BC)
Shifting Alliances
Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
Subjugation of the Eastern Satrapies: Aria, Drangian and Arachosia
Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC): War against Perdiccas (321-319 BC); Cappadocia, Egypt, Nora
Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
Roman Period (146-00-395)
Julius Caesar (55; r.46-44 BC), Marc Antony (53; fl.44-30 BC)
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
Roman Republic
A Note on Chronology
An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
Neolithic Chalcolithic
Early Iron Age (950-c.753 BC)
Early Peoples of Italy
Villanovans, Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Bronze Age (2300-950 BC)
Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
Introduction
Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
Introduction
Traditional Story (753-509 BC)
Introduction
Early Kings of Rome (753-617 BC)
Etruscan Kings of Rome 616-509 BC
Fall of the Monarchy (509 BC)
Chronology
Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
Society [1/2]
Family
Religion, Plebeians
Government [1/3]
Assemblies
Magistrates
Conflict of the Orders (494-287 BC)
Introduction (rr)
Sessations of the Plebeians
Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
Sabines, Triple Alliance
Volsci and the Aequi
Conquest of Veii (483-396 BC)
Gallic Invasion of Rome
Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
Aequi, Volsci
Etruscans, Latins and the Hernici
Tibur, Gauls [1/2], Sabellians
Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
First Samnite War
Second (=Great) Samnite War
Second Latin War (341-338 BC)
Third Samnite War
Gauls [2/2]
Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
Introduction
Pyrrhic War
End of Pre-Roman Italy (273-264 BC)
Roads, Aqueducts
Chronology
Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica
North Africa
Return to Sicily
Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
Introduction
Sicily
Sardina
Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina [1/2]
Illyria: First and Second wars with Rome
Spain
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
Preliminaries
War in Spain (218-201 BC) [1/7]
Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy
Hannibal in Southern Italy [1/2]
Revolt in Sardinia, War in Spain [2/7]
Revolt of Syracuse
First Macedonian War
War in Spain [3/7]
Hannibal in Central and Southern Italy, Carthaginian Siegecraft
Hannibal in Southern Italy (215-209 BC) [2/2]
War in Africa
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Gallia Cisalpina [2/2]
Liguria (201-154 BC)
Sardinia and Corsica (198-163 BC)
Venetia
Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
Hellenistic East
Second Macedonian War
Laconian War (195 BC)
Roman-Syrian War (192-188 BC)
Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
Achaean War (146 BC)
Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
Introduction
First Celtiberian War, Second Celtiberian War
Lusitanian War
Carthage (196-146 BC)
Masinissa (196-149 BC)
Third Punic War
Third Celtiberian War (=2nd Numantine) War (143-133 BC)
Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
Government [2/3]
Senators, Equites
Magistrates, Provinces [1/2]
Society [2/2]
Slaves, Freedmen, Farmers
Roman Citizenship, First Servile War
Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
Land Commission
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
Events in Asia Minor, Gaul and the Balkans
Pergamum (133-126 BC)
Gallia Narbonensis (125-123 BC)
Northern Border (129-110 BC)
Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC)
Introduction
Jugurthine War
Cimbrian War (113-101 BC)
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
Second Servile War (104-100 BC), Sicily
Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
Introduction, Drusus
Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War
Sulla’s capture of Rome
Second Mithridatic War
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
Macedonia (97-62 BC)
Third Servile War (73-71 BC)
Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Pompey, Consulship (70, 55, 52 BC)
Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 55; fl.85-44 BC)
Introduction
Publius Clodius Pulcher
Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
Helvetii
Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
Death of Publius Clodius Pulcher
Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
Caesar’s Civil War (49-45 BC)
Caesar’s march on Rome
Campaign in Illyria (49 BC) [1/3]
War in Egypt (48/7 BC)
Campaign in Spain (45 BC) [2/2]
Gaius Octavius (=Octavian; 76; fl.47-00-14)
Antony’s Civil War, the Second Triumvirate
Treaties of Brundisium and Misenum
Octavian’s Illyrian Campaign
Antony in the East (41-30 BC)
Parthian Invasion
Last years of the Republic (30-27 BC)
Appendices (rr)
Prehistory, Bronze Age (rr), Early Iron Age (rr): Chronology (850 kya-770 BC) (rr)
Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
Roman Family Names
Aurelius (28)
Claudius (46)
Cornelius (61)
Flavius (81)
Julius (49)
Roman Empire
A Note on Chronology
An Outline History of the Roman Empire (27-00-476)
Early Roman Empire (27-00-193):
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
01 Augustus
Second Settlement of Augustus
Succession, Reforms
Eastern Provinces and Frontiers
Western Provinces and Frontiers
Introduction
Illyrian Revolt, Teutoburg Forest
02 Tiberius
Introduction
Germanicus
Revolts in the West
Sejanus
03 Caligula
04 Claudius-I
Introduction
Valeria Messalina
Julia Agrippina the Younger
Freedmen, Jews, Provinces
Invasion of Britain
05 Nero
Introduction
Revolt in Britain, Boudicca
Nero’s Parthian War [1/5]
Nero’s Despotism
First Jewish Revolt [Part 1/2]
End of the Dynasty
Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
06 Galba
07 Otho
08 Vitellius
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
09 Vespasian
Rhine-Danube Frontier [1/5]
First Jewish Revolt [Part 2/2]
Further conquest in Britain [1/3]
Adjustments in the East, Domestic
10 Titus
Further conquest in Britain [2/3]
11 Domitian
Introduction
Rhine-Danube Frontier [2/5], Final Years of the Dynasty
Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
12 Nerva
Accession
13 Trajan
Introduction, Dacian Wars
Trajan’s Parthian War [2/5], Kitos (Second Jewish) Revolt
14 Hadrian
Introduction, Third Jewish Revolt, Succession
15 Antoninus Pius
Further conquests in Britain, Armenia
North Africa, Egypt and the Rhine-Danube Frontier [3/5]
16 Lucius Verus, Lucius Verus’ Parthian War [3/5]
17 Marcus Aurelius
First Marcomannic War
Cassius (usurper)
Second Marcomannic War (177-180)
18 Commodus
Conspiracies, Dacia and Britain
Marcus Aurelius Cleander, Megalomania
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
19 Pertinax, 20 Didius Julianus
Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
Severan Dynasty (193-211)
21*Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus’ Civil War, [1 of 12]; Septimius Albinus (usurper) [1/2]
Septimius Severus’ Civil War, [1 of 12]: Pescennius Niger, Albinus [2/2]
Septimius Severus’ Parthian War [4/5]
North Africa: Proconsularis, Mauretania and Numidia
Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
22*Caracalla, 23*Geta
Introduction (RR)
Constitutio Antoniniana
Alamanni and Goths, Caracalla’s Parthian War [5/5]
Non-Dynastic (217-218)
24*Macrinus, 25*Diadumenian
Severan Dynasty Restored
26 Elagabalus
27 Severus Alexander, Sassanid [1/9] and Alamanni [1/3] Wars
Military Anarchy (235-284)
28 Maximinus-I Thrax
29*Gordian-I, 30*Gordian II, 31*Balbinus, 32*Pupienus; Maximinus’ Civil War [2/2]
33 Gordian III Pius; Goths and Carpi, Gordian III’s Sassanid War, [2/9]
34 Philip-I the Arab, 35 Philip II: Emperors
36 Decius, 37 Herennius Etruscus; Persecution of Christians, Decius’ Gothic War [1/6]
38*Hostilian, 39*Trebonianus Gallus,Volusianus, 40*Aemilianus, 41 Aemilianus
42*Valerian: Gothic War [2/6], Sassanid War [3/9]
43*Gallienus, 44*Saloninus; Rhine-Danube Frontier [4/5]; Usurpers, Gallienus’ Gothic War [3/6]
45 Claudius II Gothicus
46 Aurelian
Rhine-Danube Frontier [5/5], Aurelian’s Juthungine War
Palmyrene Empire, End of the Gallic Empire
47 Tacitus, 48 Florianus, 49 Probus
50*CARUS, Carus’ Sassanid War [4/9]
Late Roman Empire (284-476)
53*Diocletian, 54*Maximian
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Britannic Empire (286-296)
Galerius’ Sassanid War (297-298 [5/9]
Christianity [1/3]
Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
55*Constantius-I Chlorus, 56*Galerius, 57*Severus, 58*Maxentius, 59*Constantine-I, 60*Licinius, 61*Maximinus II Daia
TETRARCHIC WARS (306-324)
Introduction
Maxentius/Severus’ Civil War [4/12]
Constantine-I/Maxentius’ Civil War [5/12]
Licinius/Maximinus II Dias Civil War (313) [6/12]
Constantine-I/Licinius’ (1st) Civil War (316), [7/12]
Constantine-I/Licinius’ (324) (2nd) Civil War, [8/12]
Constantine-I Sole Ruler
Christianity [2/3], Constantinople, Prefectures, Succession
62*Constantine II, 63*Constans, 64*Constantius II
Introduction, Christianity [3/3]
Constantius II: Sassanid War [6/9], Civil War [9/12]
65*Julian
Julian’s Alamanni War [2/3], Julian’s Civil War [10/12]
Julian’s Sassanid War, [7/9]
66 Jovian
Valentinian-Theodosian Dynasty (364-455)
67*Valentinian-I, 68 Valens
Procopius (usurper), Valentinian-I’s Alamanni War [3/3]
Valens’ First Gothic War [4/6]
69*Gratian
Britain, the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’; Valens and Persia, Firmus
70*Valentinian II
Valens’ Second Gothic War [5/6]
75*Honorius
Alaric’s Second invasion of Greece [2/2]
76*Theodosius II
Britannic Revolt, Death of Stilicho, Anthemius
77*Constantine III, 78*Constans II
Introduction
More Usurpers, Burgundian Kingdom
Visigoth Kingdom, Frankish Kingdom
80*Valentinian III
Valentinian III, Flavius Aetius [1/2]
Flavius Aetius [2/2]
Theodosius II’s (2nd) Sassanian War [9/9]
81*Marcian
Gepid Kingdom, Heruli Kingdom, Sciri Kingdom
Non-dynastic (455-476) (W) and the Leonid Dynasty (455-518) (E)
83 Avitus
87 Anthemius
Introduction, Aspar
88 Olybrius, 89 Glycerius
94 Romulus Augustulus; 95 Zeno [2/2], Odoacer
Appendices
Chronology: Roman Empire
Chronology: Roman Emperors
Chronology: Roman Usurpers
Category:
Second Servile War (104-100 BC), Sicily
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