| B: Cibalae | Croatia | Constantine-I/Licinius | 08.10.316 |
| B: Mardia | Bulgaria | Constantine-I/Licinius | 316 |
After his victory over Maximinus, Licinius campaigned along the Persian frontier (313/4), against the Goths along the Danube (315), and in summer 316 he set up court in Sirmium in Pannonia Inferior. During this time Constantine led a force of twenty thousand horse and foot soldiers some two hundred miles across the eastern Alps and into Licinian territory, while Licinius himself with a force of thirty-five thousand horse and foot soldiers marched westwards to meet his rival.
On 8 October the opposing armies met on a great plain between the Savus (=Sava) and Dravus (=Drave) rivers, north of Cibalae (=Vinkovci, Croatia). After initial skirmishing from a distance with bows and arrows and fierce fighting at close quarters with swords and spears, Constantine led a cavalry charge from the right wing that broke enemy ranks and put them to flight.
Licinius fled to Sirmium, then retreated southeast across Dacia promoting the duke of its frontier Valerius (24) Valens (fl.316-317) to augustus, presumably to secure his loyalty, and onto Thracia. With the help of Valens he managed to raise a large army near Adrianople (=Edirne, Thracia), founded as Hadrianopolis. He also attempted to negotiate with Constantine, but the latter rejected the peace offer.
After a journey of some three hundred miles (480 km), Constantine crossed through the Haemus Mons (=Balkan Mountains) and established his army at Philippopolis (=Plovdiv, Bulgaria) on the banks of the Hebrus (=Maritsa) River. Encamped to the south on the Plain of Mardia (Harmanli) were the legions of Licinius, now reinforced by a second army commanded by Valens. In the ensuing fierce battle both sides inflicted heavy injuries on each other until darkness interrupted the indecisive struggle.
Constantine, thinking that Licinius would withdraw eastwards towards the Hellespont, headed in that direction himself. Licinius, however, retreated southwest in the direction of Beroea (northeast Greece), placing himself across Constantine’s lines of communication with the west.
So when once again Licinius sent a deputation, Constantine was prepared to discuss a peace, though he kept its leader, Mestrianus, a hostage until his first two demands were met, i.e. that Valens to be deposed and that his own position as the senior augustus be recognized. Both these demands were accepted and Licinius not only deposed Valens but later executed him for good measure.
On 1 March 317 at Constantine’s new imperial residence at Serdica (=Sofia, Bulgaria), Licinius ceded all his European territories, except for Thracia, to Constantine. Three new caesares were appointed, confirming the principle of hereditary succession: Constantine’s two sons, 18Flavius Julius Crispus (fl.309-326) and 15Flavius Claudius Constantinus (24; fl.317-340), received office along with Licinius’ son Licinius the Younger (c.11; fl.317-324).
Constantine now held the larger part of the Empire’s territory, but the concentration of troops and wealth in the East gave Licinius almost as large a share of power. From 317 onwards Constantine remained in his eastern provinces, especially those of the Danube, sending his eldest son Crispus as a caesar to Treverorum (=Trier), where he ruled Britain, Gaul and Spain with his own praetorian prefect 04Annius Bassus.
In the years that followed, Licinius and Constantine grew further apart. In 318-319 the consulships were shared between East and West, but in 320 Constantine chose two consuls from his own side and Licinius reciprocated by choosing two of his own. The friction continued with Constantine strongly favouring and enlisting the support of Christians, and Licinius taking the opposite action having come to regard the Christians in the East as dangerous partisans of Constantine.
During this period there were several campaigns: Licinius against the Sarmatians (318); Crispus against the Franks (319); Crispus against the Alamanni (320, 323). In 320 Licinius began his persecution of the Christians with confiscations and the sacking of Christian office holders.
During Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians (303), in North Africa certain priests, known to their opponents as traditores (=betrayers), yielded to the emperor’s demands by surrendering their copies of the sacred texts. Donatus Magnus (died c.355) and his followers considered that by their compromising, the traditores had entered a state of sin. The Donatists organised opposition to Caecilian, Bishop of Carthage (311), over his moderation in readmitting traditores to communion. Constantine referred the issue to a Church Council at Arelate (314), which decided against the Donatists. Constantine’s attempts at military suppression of the Donatists failed, and he reluctantly abandoned the persecution in 321.
In 322 Constantine repulsed Iazygian Sarmatians who had invaded Pannonia. It is possible that at this time he started the reinforcement or building of the Limes Sarmatiae (=Devil’s Dykes). In the same year Licinius withdrew his troops from the frontier during his preparations for another civil war, and thus opened the way for a new incursion by the Sarmatians.
In spring 323 a troop of Sarmatians led by Rausimod besieged the Danubian fort of Campona, not far from Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary). Constantine soon arrived from Sirmium, attacked the Sarmatians and drove them back across the Danube to their own country where he defeated them and Rausimod met his death.
In their pursuit of the Sarmatians, however, the Western army had crossed into Thracia. When Licinius protested about the intrusion, Constantine replied that he was defending the Empire as Licinius had failed or refused to do so. War was now certain and both sides made their preparations for it.
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