The ancient civilization of Elam stretched from the southwest lowlands of Khuzestan and Ilam to the immediate highland areas to the north and east. Geographically the land of Elam can be seen to be a continuation of that of lower Mesopotamia. The story of Elam is one of incessant struggle between the two areas. In the earliest records mention is made of the story of ‘Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta’; a raid by Enmebaragesi of Kish (r.c.2615-c.2585 BC) into Elam (c.2700 BC); and a similar achievement is accredited to Gilgamesh of Uruk (r.c.2600 BC) slightly later.
The kingdom’s four major cities were Awan (probably in south Loristan), Anshan (=Tal-i Malyan, central Fars), Simashki (north of Kerman), and Susa (=Shush, Khuzestan) the capital, seventy-five miles (100 km) east of the Tigris. During the second and first millennia BC Elamite rulers traditionally took the title king of Anzan (Anshan) and Shushan (Susa).
One of the earliest known civilizations on the Iranian Plateau was the Jiroft in southeastern Iran, in the province of Kerman, which some archaeologists believe shows similarities with Elamite culture.
| ELAMITE PERIOD (3200-559) | Aryans | 1200-1000 |
| MEDIAN PERIOD (728-549) | Scythians | 653-625 |
| ACHAEMENID PERIOD (549-330) | – | 549-330 |
| GREEK PERIOD (330-238) | Seleucids | 312-129 |
| PARTHIAN PERIOD (238-00-224) | Romans | 53-00-363 |
| SASSANID PERIOD (224-651) | Byzantines | 421-628 |
Awan Dynasty (c.2500-c.2000 BC)
The first known Elamite Dynasty was founded in Awan by Peli (c.2440 BC). A raid against the city of Ur established Elamite independence for several generations. Sargon of Akkad (r.c.2270-c.2215 BC) sacked Awan and Susa; his son Rimush (r.c.2214-c.2206 BC) continued the war; and Rimush’s successor Manishtusu (r.c.2205-c.2191 BC) speaks of subjugating Anshan after its ruler revolted from Sargon’s Empire. Naram-Sin (r.c.2190-c.2154 BC) concluded a treaty with the king of Awan. Kutik-inshushinak (c.2040 BC) conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity, but following his reign the Awan Dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Gutians.
Simashki Dynasty (c.2000-c.1900 BC)
After the fall of Awan a new Elamite Dynasty appeared in Simashki. At this time the Sumerians appear to have had a measure of control over Susa and Anshan. Shulgi of Ur III (r.c.2029-c.1982 BC) and his son, Shu-Sin (r.c.1972-c.1964 BC), both married one of their daughters to the governor of Anshan. During the reign of Ibbi-Sin (r.c.1963-c.1940 BC), however, Kindattu (c.1940 BC) managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity, thus ending the Third Dynasty of Ur.
Epartid Dynasty (c.1900-c.1500 BC)
About the middle of the nineteenth century BC power passed to a new dynasty founded by Eparti II (c.1900 BC). Shirukduh (c.1730 BC) was active against the rising power of Babylon, but Hammurabi (r.c.1728-c.1686 BC) crushed Elam in c.1702 BC. During the decline of the Old Babylonian kingdom Kutir-nahhunte-I (c.1650 BC) attacked Hammurabi’s son Samsuiluna (r.c.1686-c.1648 BC) and inflicted a serious defeat on the Babylonians.
Kidinuid Dynasty (c.1500-c.1350 BC)
Very little is known about this period. Its kings were titled ‘king of Anshan and Susa’, which suggests that there was renewed political unity within Elam. Tepti-ahar (c.1360 BC) built a new settlement called Kabnak (=Haft Tepe), approximately 12 miles (≈20 km) south of Susa.
Igehalkid Dynasty (c.1350-c.1200 BC)
The Kassite Babylonian king Kurigalzu II (r.c.1332-c.1308 BC) fought the Elamite king Hurbatila (c.1330 BC), and conquered Elam. Under Humban-numena-I (r.c.1300-c.1280 BC) Elam was once again a single realm. His son Untash-napirisha (r.c.1280-c.1240 BC) built many temples and founded a new shrine and built a new city Dur-Untash (=Chogha Zanbil). The newly powerful Assyrians under Tukulti-Ninurta-I (r.c.1233-c.1197 BC) raided Babylonia and installed a subject king in Babylon. The weakness of Babylon enabled Kitin-hutran II (r.c.1230-c.1210 BC) to raid across the country and dethrone the Assyrian puppet. But Tukulti-Ninurta was the stronger: the Elamite disappeared and the dynasty ended.
Shutrukid Dynasty (c.1200-c.1100 BC)
Shutruk-nahhunte-I (r.c.1185-c.1155 BC) conquered Sippar and imposed heavy tribute on defeated towns and villages. He then took Kish and Babylon, drove out the Kassite king, Zababa-shum-iddina (r.c.1158 BC), and appointed his elder son, Kutir-nahhunte II (r.c.1155-c.1150 BC), governor of Babylonia. The last Kassite king Enlil-nadin-ahhe (r.c.1157-c.1155 BC) stayed on the Babylon throne for three years until he was captured by Kutir-nahhunte. During the reign of Hutelutush-inshushinak (r.c.1120-c.1110 BC), the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar-I (r.c.1126-c.1103 BC) attacked Elam and was just barely beaten off. A second Babylonian attack succeeded, however, and the whole of Elam was apparently overrun.
The next mention of Elam is in an Assyrian inscription referring to events in 821 BC. In the intervening years Elam had suffered pressure from Indo-Aryan invaders in the north and east. The Medes gradually settled north of Elam, the Persians – from the word ‘Persis’ or ‘Parsa’, which originally referred to the region of southwest Iran between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf – south around Pasargadae and Persepolis. Initially the tribes called their acquired territory the ‘land of the Aryans’, hence Iran.
Humban-Tahrid Dynasty (c.760-521 BC)
Elam’s last period of historical importance came within the decades following the Battle of Der in 720 BC, when Humban-nikash-I (743-717 BC) joined with the Babylonian king Merodach-Baladan II (r.722*703 BC) to prevent the forces of Sargon II (r.722-705 BC) from marching southwards. (Too much of Elam’s energy was to be absorbed in aiding Babylonia against Assyrian attempts at subjugation.)
In 703 BC, after Sennacherib (r.705-681 BC) had succeeded Sargon, Humban-nikash’s son Shutur-nahhunte II (r.717-699 BC) and Merodach-Baladan set out with Elamite troops. After initial success they were defeated. Merodach-Baladan fled to his allies in the marshes; Shutur-nahhunte went back to Elam where he was usurped by his younger brother Hallushu-inshushinak (r.699-693 BC).
Sennacherib pursued Merodach-Baladan into the marshes of the Persian Gulf. While he was thus engaged, Hallushu-inshushinak entered northern Babylonia, took Sippar and captured Sennacherib’s son, Ashur-nadin-shumi (r.700-694 BC), the Assyrian king of Babylon. In 693 BC Sennacherib overcame the Elamite and Babylonian troops at Nippur. Hallushu-inshushinak managed to get back to Susa, but was killed by his own people and his son Kutir-nahhunte III (r.693-692 BC) became king.
Anti-Assyrian movements in Babylonia found more Elamite support, culminating in the indecisive Battle of Halule, probably in 691 BC. The combined army that opposed the Assyrians was under Elamite commanders. The Assyrians began the siege of Babylon at once. Humban-numena III (r.692-688 BC) suffered a stroke while Babylon was still under siege and died shortly after the city fell in 689 BC.
Not much is known of Humban-haltash-I (r.688-681 BC) except that he died suddenly. In 675 BC Humban-haltash II (r.681-675 BC) raided Sippar while the Assyrians were campaigning in Egypt. His brother Urtak-inshushinak (=Urtaku; r.675-663 BC) initially had good relations with Assyria, but in 665 BC he raided Babylonia while the main Assyrian army was again away in Egypt. Local forces repulsed the Elamites and Urtaku died soon afterwards.
Temti-humban-inshushinak-I (=Teumman; r.663-653 BC) provoked a war when he attempted to extradite Elamites who found asylum in Assyria. In 653 BC Ashurbanipal (r.668-631 BC) invaded Elam, and after routing the Elamites at the Ulaya River, sacked Susa. Teumman was beheaded. Humban-nikash II (r.653-651 BC) was made king of Elam and a separate kingdom was created for his brother Tammaritu at Hidalu southeast of Susa. As soon as the Assyrian troops had left Elam, Humban-nikash shifted his support to Shamash-shum-ukin (r.668-648 BC), the Assyrian king of Babylon, in his revolt. Humban-nikash was supplanted by his cousin, another Tammaritu (r.652-649, 647 BC), who followed the same policy, only to be deposed by a general Indabibi (r.649-648 BC).
Indabibi was murdered and supplanted by Humban-haltash III (r.648*644 BC), who realized that the major cause of Assyrian hostility was the sheltering by Elam of the Babylonian rebel Nabu-bel-sumati. His attempt to deliver the Babylonian to Assyria was thwarted by his officers, precipitating an Assyrian campaign that drove Humban-haltash from Susa and reinstated Tammaritu 647 BC. When the Assyrians withdrew, Humban-haltash returned.
In 646 BC Ashurbanipal launched another offensive. Humban-haltash was driven from Madaktu west of Susa, and fell back to Dur-Untas. Ashurbanipal utterly destroyed Susa, pulling down buildings, looting, and sowing the land of Elam with salt. Humban-haltash returned and took up residence at Madaktu. Pae, a passing claimant to the Elamite throne, fled to Assyria. At a later date Humban-haltash was captured and taken to Ashurbanipal’s court.
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