At the beginning of the reign of Xerxes’ son Artaxerxes-I (r.465-424 BC), his brother the satrap of Bactria revolted when he heard of Artaxerxes’ accession, but was defeated; and in 460 BC in Egypt the Libyan Inaros with his Athenian allies revolted and held out until 454 BC. Fighting in Asia Minor seems to have resulted in a serious Persian setback. The historicity of the Peace of Callias (449 BC) is debated, but certainly direct hostilities between the Athenians and the Persians ceased in the mid-century BC.
Artaxerxes’ death resulted in at least three of his sons proclaiming themselves kings: Xerxes II (r. 424 BC), apparently only recognized in Persia; Sogdianus (r.424-423 BC), possibly recognized in Elam; and Ochus. An inscription of Ochus as Darius II (r.423-404 BC) is dated 10 January 423 BC, and he seems to have been recognized by the Medes, Babylonia and Egypt. Xerxes after a reign of forty-five days was assassinated by Sogdianus who in turn was murdered by Darius.
The most important event at this time was the Peloponnesian War (c.460-404 BC) between Sparta and Athens. Taking advantage of Athens’ difficulties, Darius gave orders to his satraps in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes (d.395 BC) and Pharnabazus, to collect the overdue tribute of the Greek towns and to enter into an alliance with Sparta. In 408 BC Darius sent his son Cyrus the Younger (c.423-401 BC) to Asia Minor to carry on the war. In Sardes, Cyrus met Lysander (d.395 BC), and they helped Sparta to win the war against Athens. In 404 BC Egyptian Amyrtaeus (r.404-399 BC) declared himself king.
Darius was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes II (r.404-358 BC). In 401 BC Cyrus the Younger revolted but was defeated at Cunaxa. In 387 BC Artaxerxes ended the Corinthian War (395-387 BC) with the King’s Peace negotiated by the Spartan Antalcidas. In 391 BC Evagoras of Cyprus (c.46; 411-374 BC) revolted and a peace was concluded in 376 BC. In 373 BC Artaxerxes failed in his attempt to reconquer Egypt, but was successful in ending the Satraps’ revolt (366-358 BC), largely helped by the mutual mistrust among his enemies.
Soon after becoming king, Artaxerxes III (c.87; r.358-338 BC) murdered all of the royal family to secure his place as emperor. In 351 BC a failed invasion of Egypt was followed by the suppression of a major revolt of Phoenicia. In 343 BC Egypt was finally conquered. By the end of Artaxerxes’ rule Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC) already had plans for invasion of the Persian Empire.
Artaxerxes IV (r.338-336 BC) became king after the murder of his father and most of his family by the vizier of Persia, the eunuch Bagoas. Two years later Bagoas poisoned the king and then raised a cousin of Artaxerxes to the throne as Darius III (r.336-330 BC). Bagoas tried to poison him too; but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself.
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC) destroyed the Persian Empire in three great battles: Granicus (May 334 BC), which freed the Ionian Greeks; Issus (5 Nov 333 BC), which enabled the capture of the Mediterranean ports and Egypt; and Gaugamela (1 Oct 331 BC), after which Alexander was able to take Babylon and invade the Persian plateau. Darius was killed by Bessus, satrap of Bactria, also known as Artaxerxes V (r.330-329 BC) before Alexander could reach him.
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