Lucius 12Licinius Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Leaving Cotta blockaded in the city, Mithridates moved westwards along the south coast of the Propontis to Cyzicus, located on the southern side of the island of Arctonnesus and connected by a narrow causeway across a narrow strait to the mainland. Mithridates wanted Cyzicus as a base for his army, but the town held until the arrival of Lucullus who, hearing of Mithridates’ siege of Cyzicus, left his position near the Sangarius (=Sakarya) River in Phrygia from where he could invade Pontus, and marched westwards to relieve the city.
Mithridates had occupied the high ground facing the city across the causeway, and then transferred troops to the north of the island and settled them in ten forts around the town. For his siege he raised mounds, built machines, towers and rams. In particular he built a bridging tower on two quinqueremes. The Cyzicenes reacted by pouring burning pitch on the ships supporting it. Mithridates now made the fatal mistake of allowing Lucullus to take up a position that controlled all the supply-routes by land. This meant that Mithridates’ situation would become acute if the siege lasted into the winter because then he would also lose his seaborne supplies.
As winter approached and with famine already threatening the Pontic army, Mithridates sent his cavalry and wounded eastwards into Bithynia. Lucullus caught them at the Rhyndacus River, where it is said he captured fifteen thousand men and six thousand horses. While Mithridates escaped by sea his infantry marched westwards along the coast in an attempt to reach the harbour at Lampsacus, from where they could be evacuated by the fleet. Lucullus gave chase, inflicting more heavy losses on them as they crossed the Aesepus (=Gonen Cayı) and again further west at the Granicus (=Biga Cayı).
In all, including those who died from hunger and disease on the north of the island, Mithridates had lost some two hundred thousand men, but his fleet still commanded the sea. He took most of his forces to Nicomedia but sent fifty ships and ten thousand men west to the Aegean under the command of Varius, Alexander the Paphlagonian, and Dionysius the eunuch.
Lucullus managed to raise a fleet from Rome’s allies and left part of it to operate in the Propontis while he led the rest against Varius. It seems that part of the Pontic squadron was destroyed in a storm soon after leaving Lampsacus; another thirteen ships were captured near Tenedos; and the final clash came when the remaining Pontic ships were found beached on the shore of a barren island close to Lemnos. Lucullus then sent part of his fleet to the far side of the island, where he landed part of his army. Eventually, caught in between the two forces and after suffering heavy losses, Alexander was captured, Dionysius took poison and Varius was killed.
By the autumn, the Romans controlled Bithynia, and Mithridates withdrew to Pontus. In the spring Lucullus advanced into the heart of Pontus, where Mithridates had assembled a considerable army at Cabira. Having only three legions and too weak to attack, Lucullus established his legions in a defensive position on high ground nearby.
Mithridates sent his cavalry to intercept Lucullus’ supply route from the south. A Roman officer 15Fabius Hadrianus, who was escorting the store train, defeated his attackers and when reinforced defeated the whole column. After this setback Mithridates decided to retreat, but his troops panicked and Lucullus attacked and massacred them. The king himself managed to escape through the mountains and took refuge with his son-in-law in Armenia, Tigranes II (85; r.95-55 BC).
Lucullus was thus left free to complete the territorial conquest of Pontus. The royal residences of Cabira and Eupatoria were captured quickly, and the Greek cities of Sinope and Amisus were taken after lengthy sieges. But to complete his conquest Lucullus required Mithridates himself and in 71 BC he sent 25Claudius Pulcher (48; fl.71-49 BC) to treat with Tigranes for the surrender of the king’s person. Cotta returned to Rome, and Bithynia was added to Lucullus’ command.
To pay Sulla’s indemnity in 84 BC, the cities of Asia had to borrow heavily at exorbitant interest from Roman bankers. By 70 BC the cities’ collective debt had risen six-fold. Lucullus now cancelled interest arrears that exceeded the capital, and met the indemnity with a levy and some taxes. Within four years all the debts of the cities had been paid off.
In 83 BC Tigranes had expanded his kingdom with an invasion of Cilicia Pedias (east), Syria and Phoenicia, and was offered the Seleucid throne by the inhabitants of Antioch, tired of the warring Seleucid princes. He founded a new fortress-capital at Tigranocerta, southwest of Lake Van.
In 70 BC Claudius returned westwards to Ephesus to inform Lucullus that despite the threat of war, Tigranes had refused to surrender Mithridates. In the summer of 69 BC Lucullus marched with twelve thousand troops with four thousand cavalry and light-armed troops through Cappadocia to Armenia.
Tigranes sent a general Mithrobarzanes with two thousand cavalry to slow down Lucullus’ advance, but his forces were routed by cavalry led by Sextilius (2), a legate under Lucullus. Learning of this defeat, Tigranes entrusted the defence of the city to his officer Mancaeus and retreated to the mountains to muster an army. Lucullus, with an unimpeded path towards Tigranocerta, advanced and laid siege to the city.
The city was heavily fortified and had thick walls that are said to have stood twenty-five metres high. The Roman siege engines were attacked by defenders using naphtha, a sticky pitchy kind of substance that burnt everything it stuck to, and water could hardly quench it.
Tigranes returned with an army that probably exceeded two hundred thousand. Leaving his officer 14Licinius Murena to continue the siege of the city, Lucullus marched against Tigranes. On the eve of the battle the two forces faced each other across a river. Tigranes’ cataphracts (heavily armoured cavalry) were positioned on his right flank (west).
Realising the cataphracts posed the greatest threat to his men, Lucullus marched his army left and downstream to a position that was more easily fordable. Tigranes, believing that the Romans were retreating, made the fatal mistake of not responding. Taking his chance, Lucullus quickly crossed the river and formed up to attack the Armenian cavalry.
He ordered his own cavalry to harass the cataphracts and behind the action moved two cohorts (1000 men) of infantry undetected to a hill to the rear of the enemy line. At an opportune moment the cohorts charged down the hill and attacked the vulnerable flank of the cataphracts. Driven back in confusion, they disrupted their own infantry and caused the entire line to give way. Tigranes himself escaped but great slaughter took place during a pursuit that went on for fifteen miles.
In 68 BC the opposition of Lucullus’ enemies was making his position difficult. The Senate had not authorised his advance and resenting his arbitrary conduct they appointed new governors to Cilicia and Asia, restricting him to his military command. The capitalists were also against him, and his troops weary of his long campaigns were growing restless.
In midsummer, Lucullus crossed the Euphrates and reached Armenia after a march continually harassed by the enemy’s cavalry. He crossed the Arsanias, the eastern branch of the Euphrates, where he brushed aside an attack by Tigranes, and continued across Armenia towards Artaxata.
Lucullus besieged the northern capital, but Mithridates assisted the Armenians; and Tigranes remained with his army in surrounding mountains and harassed the Romans. But it was now late in the season and facing trouble by mutinous troops, Lucullus withdrew to the plains of Mesopotamia, where he took the strong town of Nisibis and spent the winter there.
Late in 68 BC, Mithridates, with a force reportedly at eight thousand men, marched westwards and attacked the Roman troops dispersed within Pontus. The legate 15Fabius Hadrianus was defeated and besieged in Cabira, where he was relieved by the forces of 14Valerius Triarius.
In the early summer Mithridates succeeded in luring the Roman troops at Gazioura, some eighty kilometres south of Cabira, by threatening their principal storehouse of war material in the neighbourhood of Zela. The Romans led by Triarius attacked the Zela camp at night. During the battle, Mithridates received a grievous wound in a thigh. He was reportedly healed by snake venom and only a few hours later was back in his saddle. By this time, however, the Romans had already fled, leaving seven thousand dead, including twenty four tribunes and one hundred and fifty centurions. After this success Mithridates recaptured a large part of his kingdom. Later in the summer, 11Marcius Rex (cos.68 BC) arrived as proconsul of Cilicia (west), and the consul 03Acilius Glabrio took over the Eastern command from Lucullus. Glabrio was ineffective against Mithridates, who recovered the whole of Pontus, and Tigranes entered Cappadocia. Lucullus lingered on in Asia until Pompey’s arrival the following year then returned to Rome and retired into private life in 63 BC.
Leave a Reply