The name ‘Old Kingdom’ (coined by nineteenth century historians) refers to the period when Egypt reached its first peak of civilization in complexity and achievement – the first of the three so-called ‘Kingdom’ periods. Memphis continued as the royal capital. Former states became known as nomes, ruled by the king. Governors (nomarchs) were appointed but later these became hereditary posts. The people worshipped the king as a god, believing that through his magical powers he controlled the Nile flood.
Nebka (r.c.2686-c.2667 BC), who may have been Sanakhte, was possibly the first king of the third dynasty. Netjerikhet (r.c.2667-c.2648 BC), later known as Djoser, is best known for his Step Pyramid at Saqqara, built by his architect Imhotep. Sekhemkhet (r.c.2648-c.2640 BC) was unknown until his unfinished buried pyramid was found at Saqqara. At Zawiyet el-Aryan about seven kilometres north of Saqqara, another unfinished pyramid is probably the funerary monument of Khaba (r.c.2640-c.2637 BC). Huni (r.c.2637-c.2613 BC) is known from several small pyramids across Egypt. Their purpose is unknown but they may have been boundary markers.
The first king of the fourth dynasty Sneferu (r.c.2613-c.2589 BC), built the Bent Pyramid at Maidum, which is a step pyramid converted to a true pyramid (one without steps). He also built two pyramids at Dahshur, south of Saqqara: the Bent Pyramid, which has a double slope, and the Red (or North Stone) Pyramid. Sneferu’s son, Khufu (r.c.2589-c.2566 BC), built the Great Pyramid at Giza, the largest pyramid ever constructed, measuring 270 metres each side and 146 metres high. Djedefre (r.c.2566-c.2558 BC) began a large pyramid at Abu Rawash, northwest of Giza, but work on it stopped when he died. Khufu’s son, Khafre (r.c.2558-c.2532 BC), built the second pyramid at Giza and the Great Sphinx. Khafre’s son, Menkaure (r.c.2532-c.2503 BC), built the third pyramid at Giza. Shepseskaf (r.c.2503-c.2498 BC) did not build a pyramid; he instead built a huge sarcophagus-shaped mastaba, called the Mastaba el-Faraun, in Saqqara.
The first king of the fifth dynasty Userkaf (r.c.2494-c.2487 BC), built a new type of funerary monument, the sun temple, at Abusir, north of Saqqara. Sahure (r.c.2487-c.2475 BC) appears to have had contact with west Asia and to have sent expeditions to Punt and Nubia. The pyramid temple of Neferirkare (r.c.2475-c.2455 BC) has yielded papyri that describe the day-to-day running of the complex. Very little is known about Shepseskare (r.c.2455-c.2448 BC), however, a pyramid at Abusir has been credited to him. The pyramid temple of Raneferef (r.c.2448-c.2445 BC) has produced papyri comparable to those found in the Neferirkara’s temple. Nyuserre (r.c.2445-c.2421 BC) built a pyramid complex at Abusir and a sun temple at Abu Ghurab, north of Abusir. Menkauhor (r.c.2421-c.2414 BC) is reputed to have built a pyramid and a sun temple but neither has yet been identified. Menkauhor’s successors did not build sun temples although the position of the sun-god Ra remained unchanged. Djedkare (r.c.2414-c.2375 BC) built a pyramid of relatively modest dimensions at Saqqara. Unas (r.c.2375-c.2345 BC) built a pyramid at Saqqara, smaller than Djedkara’s, but it was the first one to be inscribed with Pyramid Texts – the oldest surviving religious compositions from ancient Egypt. The sixth dynasty was founded by Teti (r.c.2345-c.2323 BC). Teti’s marriage of his eldest daughter to his vizier Mereruka was probably intended to create goodwill within the increasingly powerful nobility. Userkare (r.c.2323-c.2321 BC) was either a usurper, or possibly served as a regent until Teti’s son, Pepi-I (r.c.2321-c.2287 BC), became king. Pepi’s reign saw rising wealth and influence outside the royal court. He married two sisters whose father was an influential official at Abydos. Pepi’s son, Merenra-I (r.c.2287-c.2278 BC) appointed Weni, who began his career as a court official under Teti and served as a general under Pepi-I, as governor of Upper Egypt. During the reign of Merenra’s brother Pepi II (r.c.2278-c.2184 BC) the growing power of local officials became a major factor in the decline of the Egyptian state. Long reigns generally produce many potential royal successors and this also must have contributed to the chaos that followed. Pepi was succeeded by Merenra II (c.2184 BC) and Nitiqret (r.c.2184-c.2181 BC). Manetho’s seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of some seventeen or more ephemeral kings.
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