After consolidating his position in Persis (=Fars) the first Sassanid ruler Ardashir-I (r.224-241) soon gained control over neighbouring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana (earlier Elam) and Mesene. He defeated and killed the last Parthian king Artabanus V (r.216-224) and entered Ctesiphon in 224.
In 230 he unsuccessfully besieged the fortress town Nisibis (=Nusaybin) in northeast Mesopotamia. Like many other cities in the marches (borders) where Roman and Persian powers confronted each other, Nisibis was often taken and retaken. In 232 Ardashir fought an indecisive campaign against Severus Alexander (26; r.222-235), but in a second invasion (probably in 238) captured Carrhae and Nisibis.
When Shapur-I (r.c.241-c.271) invaded Mesopotamia, Gordian III (19; r.238-244) sent an army to the east and the Sassanids were driven back and defeated at the Battle of Resaena (243). Ancient sources claim that Gordian (having joined the army) was murdered by Philip the Arab (c.45; r.244-249), who concluded an ignominious peace with the Persians by giving up Roman conquests in northern Mesopotamia.
After the death of Decius (c.50; r. 249-251) Shapur resumed his attacks. He conquered Armenia, invaded Syria and plundered Antioch, but by 257 Valerian (c.60; r.253-260) had recovered Antioch and returned Syria to Roman control. Valerian moved to Edessa. When an outbreak of plague weakened the defenders the city was besieged by the Persians. In 260 Valerian arranged a meeting with Shapur, but was betrayed by him and taken prisoner. Shapur advanced into Asia Minor but was driven back by Valerian’s prefect Ballista (d.c.261), and Odaenathus of Palmyra (d.c.267), an ally of Rome, inflicted a severe defeat on Shapur, reconquered Mesopotamia but failed to take Ctesiphon. In 283 Carus (c.53; r.282-283) advanced on Ctesiphon, but the Roman army was forced to withdraw after Carus’ sudden death.
In 296 the seventh Sassanid king Narseh (r.293-302) invaded Armenia. He defeated a large Roman army led by Galerius (c.51; r.305-311) but in 298 he suffered a crushing defeat and his family taken captive by Galerius. As a result, the Romans secured Nisibis and the Roman province of Mesopotamia, which was the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates in the northern foothills, became in effect a military area with limes (fortified boundaries).
In 337 Shapur II (r.310-379) began a series of wars that lasted for twenty-six years. He recaptured Armenia but failed with his siege of the fortress of Singara (344). He also failed to take Nisibis and Amida. In 358 Shapur began his second series of wars against Rome. In 359 he conquered Amida after a siege of seventy-three days.
In 363 Julian (c.31; r.361-363) defeated a Sassanid army at the Battle of Ctesiphon but was unable to take the city. During his retreat along the Tigris he was killed at the Battle of Samarra. His successor Jovian (33; r.363-364) found his army in a disadvantageous position. He decided to sue for peace and had to surrender the districts acquired in 298, as well as Nisibis and Singara.
In January 503 Kavadh-I (82; r.488*531) besieged Amida (then in Byzantine hands) and the defenders surrendered after three months. In 504 the Byzantines recovered Amida and in 505 Kavadh agreed to a seven-year truce. In the interval Anastasius-I (c.88; r.491-518) built the fortress of Dara in northern Mesopotamia as a counter to Nisibis.
In 530 the Byzantines under Belisarius (c.500-565) defeated Persian troops at Dara and Satala. In 531 Belisarius was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum but during the same year the Byzantines captured some forts in Armenia.
In 540 Chosroes-I (c.78; r.531-579) invaded Syria, plundered its cities and took Antioch. In 542 he tried to capture Sergiopolis but he soon withdrew when faced by an army under Belisarius. Attacks on a number of Byzantine cities were repulsed and Persian forces were defeated at Dara. In 573 Justin II (c.58; r.565-578) sent his cousin Marcianus against Chosroes. Marcianus defeated the Persian general Miranes and laid siege to Nisibis. An abrupt dismissal of Marcianus resulted in a disorderly retreat. Chosroes quickly counterattacked and encircled Dara, capturing the city after a six-month siege. In 576 Chosroes carried out a largely unsuccessful incursion into Anatolia. On his way home he was intercepted by the Byzantine general Justinian (c.525-582) and severely defeated near Melitene (576).
In 577 the Persian general Adarmahan raided Osrhoene, but withdrew at the approach of a strong Byzantine army under Justinian. In 580 Maurice (63; r.582-602) advanced with an army along the Euphrates towards Ctesiphon. In response Adarmahan began operations in northern Mesopotamia (581), threatening the Byzantine army’s supply line, and forced Maurice to withdraw his army north. Adarmahan pillaged Osrhoene and captured its capital Edessa. He then marched his army towards Callinicum on the Euphrates but was met by Maurice and had to retreat.
At the same time as Chosroes II (r.590*628) ascended the throne, the Persian general Bahram Chobin proclaimed himself king Bahram VI (r.590-591). Chosroes fled to Constantinople and Maurice agreed to help him regain his throne. In return the Byzantines would regain sovereignty over Amida, Carrhae, Dara, Nisibis and Miyafariqin. A Byzantine army defeated Bahram at the Battle of Blarathon (near Ganzak) in 591 and peace with Byzantium was concluded.
When Maurice was murdered by his general Phocas (r.602-610) in 602, Chosroes used revenge as a pretext to launch an offensive against the Byzantines. While the Persians proved largely successful during the first stages of the war, the ascendancy of Heraclius (c.66; r.610-641) eventually led to the Persians’ defeat. In 627 Heraclius defeated the Persian army at the Battle of Nineveh.
In 633 the Muslim commander Khalid ibn al-Walid (592-642) began the invasion of Persian-ruled Iraq. Several important towns were occupied, most importantly Al-Hira, but after Khalid departed for Syria the Persian forces defeated an Arab army at the Battle of the Bridge (635). Another Arab force was dispatched and defeated a large Persian army at the Battle of Al-Qadisiyya, not far from Al-Hira, in 636. By the end of 638 the Muslims had conquered most of Iraq and the last Sassanid king Yazdegerd III (r.632-651) had fled to Iran.
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