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Astronomy
CONTENTS
Basics
Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
Ecliptic
Solar System
Motions of the Planets
Conjunction and Opposition
Equinoxes and Solstices
Precession and Nutation
Zodiac
Calendars
Early European Astronomy
Greek (7th-2nd Century BC): Introduction, Geocentric Universe
Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
Western Europe
Ancient and Distant Lands (3200 BC-13th Century AD)
China
Egypt
India
Islam
Mesoamerica
Mesopotamia (c.2900-00-637)
Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
16th Century
17th Century
18th Century
19th Century
20th Century
Appendices
Chronology
Observatories: Alphabetical List
People: Alphabetical List (A)
Beginnings
CONTENTS
Earth and the Universe
Creation of the Universe
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Forming of the Solar System
Galaxies and the Stars
Inflationary Model of the Universe
Nucleosynthesis
Space-Time
Planet Earth
Archaeology
Antiquarians
Greece and Rome
Three-Age System
Ancient and Distant Lands
Aegean
Americas and Oceania
China and India
Egypt
Mesopotamia (b)
Antiquity of Man, Early Man
Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
Geological Time Scale
Continental Drift
Fossils and Dating
Supercontinents
Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction, Taxonomy
Precambrian Supereon (4600-541 mya)
Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
Ordovician Period (485-443 mya), land plants
Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Appendices
People: Alphabetical List
Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
Animal Classification: Scheme
Animal Classification: Sequences
Archaeology: Chronology
Evolution of Life: Chronology
People: Alphabetical List (B)
Plant Classification
Ancient Europe
Introduction
CONTENTS
An Outline History of Ancient Europe
Physical Geography of Europe
Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-present)
Introduction
Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
Chronology
Prehistory (1400 kya-3500 BC)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
NORTHWEST EUROPE (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
01 Greenland
02 Iceland
03 Faroe Islands
Ireland and Britain (Pretanic Isles)
Introduction
04 Ireland (Hibernia)
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (C2: 12.5-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (C2: 9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (C1: 4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
Late Iron Age (100-400)
Chronology
05 Britain (Britannia)
05A Scotland (Caledonia)
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
Roman Period (43-407)
Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
Invasion (AD 71)
Mons Graupius (83/4)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Invasion (209)
Picti and Scoti
Scottish Islands
Introduction (Scottish Islands)
Hebrides
Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
05B Wales (Cambria)
Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
Roman Period (48-410)
05C England
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
Introduction
Ferrous Metallurgy
Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
Roman Influence
Celtic Kings
Roman Period (43-410)
Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
Northern Frontier (79-184)
Introduction
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
Gallic Empire (260-274)
Carausian Revolt (286-296)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Barbarian Conspiracy (367-369)
Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
Associated Islands
Isle of Man
Isles of Scilly
Isle of Wight
Channel Islands
Northern Europe (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
Introduction (Scandinavia)
06 Denmark
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
07 Norway (W)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age, Roman Period
08 Sweden (E)
Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (410)
09 Finland
Introduction (Finland)
Mesolithic Period (8900-5300 BC)
Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-400)
NORTHEAST EUROPE – IN PREPARATION
Baltic States
Western Russia
Ancient Near East
CONTENTS (ane)
Egypt (3050-00-646)
An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
Physical Geography of Egypt
Prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
The Nile
Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
First Intermediate Period
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
Introduction (p)
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
Ramessids, Sea People
Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC): Thebes and Tanis, Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians
Late Period (664-332 BC)
Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
Roman Period (30-00-395)
Byzantine Period, (395-646)
Mesopotamia (c.2900-00-637)
Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC); Kish I-IV, Uruk I-III, Ur I- II, Lagash-I and Umma
Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
Gutian Period, Ur III Period (c.2141-c.1940 BC)
Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC): Hammurabi, Hammurabi’s Successors
Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (331-129 BC), Seleucus-I
Sassanian Period (224-637)
Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
Assyria (c.2000-608 BC)
Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC), Fall of Nineveh
Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
Prehistory of Asia Minor (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction
Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
Phrygia, Lycia
Achaemenid Period (546-333 BC)
Introduction
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
Greek Period (333-190 BC)
Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
Bithynia (376-74 BC)
Cappadocia (331-00-17)
Commagene (163-00-72)
Armenia (570-00-114)
Roman Period (190-00-395)
Syria (3300-00-637)
Physical Geography of Syria
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC) (S)
Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
Mitanni (1500-1260 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
Achaemenid Period, Greek Period; Seleucids
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Phoenicia (c.3300-00-637)
Prehistory
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC): Tyre, Assyrians, Babylonians
Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Palestine (c.3300-00-638)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC) (pa)
Introduction (pa)
Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC) (p)
Israelites, Judges
United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
Divided Monarchy, Houses of Jeroboam, Baasha, Zimri, Omri, Jehu, Shallum and Menahem, Pekah and Hoshea
Fall of Judah (586 BC)
Greek Period (333-63 BC)
Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
Nabataeans (312-00-106)
Roman Period (63-00-395) (pa)
Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
Herod the Great
Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
Persia (c.3200-00-651)
Prehistory; Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods
Median Period (728-549 BC)
Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC)
Greek Period (330-238 BC)
Parthian Arsacid Dynasty (238-00-224)
Armenia and Rome
Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
Byzantium
Appendices (ane)
Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
Ancient Greece
An Outline History of Ancient Greece
Physical Geography of Greece
Prehistory of Greece (700 kya-1350 BC): Palaeolithic, Neolithic
Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
Early Archaic Period (c.750-546 BC)
Homer (c.750 BC) and Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Colonial Expansion (c.750-c.550 BC)
Panhellenism,Tyranny
Northern Greece
Thessaly, Epirus
Central Greece
Phocis (Delphi)
Attica (Athens)
Introduction (Ancient Greece)
Cylon, Draco, Solon
Cleisthenes (c.570-c.507 BC, archon 525/4 BC)
Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
Introduction (sg)
Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
Laconia (Sparta)
Messenia (Messene)
Eastern Aegean
Ionia
Chios
Miletus
Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
Aeolis, Lesbos
Black Sea
Greek Cities: Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
Southern Italy
Greek Cities: Sicily; Syracuse, Gela
Western Greeks (c.580-446 BC) [1/2]
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC) (g)
Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
Salamis (480 BC)
Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
Delian League (478-454 BC)
Introduction
Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
After the Truce
Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
Introduction
Year One (431/0 BC) – Aegina
Year Two (430/429 BC): Plague at Athens
Year Four (428/427 BC): Mytilene
Year Five (427/426 BC): Corcyra
Year Six (426/425 BC): Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
Year Eight (424/423 BC): Megara, Delium
Year Ten (422/421 BC): Amphipolis
Interlude (421-413 BC)
Year Fifteen (417/416 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/415 BC), Melos
Year Nineteen (413/412 BC): Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
Year Twenty-One (411/410 BC): Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
Year Twenty-Two (410/409 BC): Cyzicus
Year Twenty-Six (406/405 BC): Notium, Arginusae
Western Greeks [2/2]
Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
Second Sicilian War (410-367 BC)
Syracuse
Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
Theban Hegemony (371-362 BC)
Shifting Alliances
Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
Subjugation of the Eastern Satrapies: Aria, Drangian and Arachosia
Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC): War against Perdiccas (321-319 BC); Cappadocia, Egypt, Nora
Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
Roman Period (146-00-395)
Julius Caesar (55; r.46-44 BC), Marc Antony (53; fl.44-30 BC)
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
Roman Republic
An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
Neolithic Chalcolithic
Early Iron Age (950-c.753 BC)
Early Peoples of Italy
Villanovans, Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Bronze Age (2300-950 BC)
Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
Introduction
Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
Introduction
Traditional Story
Etruscan Kings of Rome
Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
Society [2/4]
Religion, Plebeians
Government [1/3]
Assemblies
Magistrates
Conflict of the Orders (494-287 BC)
Sessations of the Plebeians
Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
Sabines, Triple Alliance
Volsci and the Aequi
Gallic Invasion of Rome
Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
Aequi, Volsci
Etruscans, Latins and the Hernici
Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
First Samnite War
Second (=Great) Samnite War
Third Samnite War
Gauls [2/2]
Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
Introduction
Pyrrhic War
Roads, Aqueducts
Chronology
Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica
North Africa
Return to Sicily
Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
Sardina
Illyria: First and Second wars with Rome
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
Preliminaries
War in Spain (218-201 BC) [1/7]
Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy
Hannibal in Southern Italy [1/2]
Revolt of Syracuse
First Macedonian War
War in Spain [3/7]
War in Africa
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Gallia Cisalpina [2/2]
Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
Hellenistic East
Second Macedonian War
Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
Introduction
Lusitanian War
Carthage (196-146 BC)
Third Punic War
Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
Society [2/2]
Slaves, Freedmen, Farmers
Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC)
Introduction
Jugurthine War
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
Introduction, Drusus
Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War
Sulla’s capture of Rome
Second Mithridatic War
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
Macedonia (97-62 BC)
Third Servile War (73-71 BC)
Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Pompey, Consulship (70, 55, 52 BC)
Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 55; fl.85-44 BC)
Introduction
Publius Clodius Pulcher
Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
Helvetii
Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
Death of Publius Clodius Pulcher
Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
Caesar’s Civil War (49-45 BC)
Caesar’s march on Rome
Campaign in Illyria (49 BC) [1/3]
War in Egypt (48/7 BC)
Campaign in Spain (45 BC) [2/2]
Gaius Octavius (=Octavian; 76; fl.47-00-14)
Antony’s Civil War, the Second Triumvirate
Treaties of Brundisium and Misenum
Octavian’s Illyrian Campaign
Antony in the East (41-30 BC)
Parthian Invasion
Last years of the Republic (30-27 BC)
Appendices (rr)
Prehistory, Bronze Age (rr), Early Iron Age (rr): Chronology (850 kya-770 BC) (rr)
Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
Roman Family Names
Aurelius (28)
Claudius (46)
Cornelius (61)
Flavius (81)
Julius (49)
Roman Empire
An Outline History of the Roman Empire (27-00-476)
Early Roman Empire (27-00-193)
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
01 Augustus (76; r.27.01-00-14.08)
Cantabrian Wars (27-19 BC)
Second Settlement of Augustus (23 BC)
Succession, Reforms
Eastern Provinces and Frontiers
Western Provinces and Frontiers (27-00-14)
Introduction
Illyrian Revolt, Teutoburg Forest
02 Tiberius (78; r.14.09-37.03)
Introduction
Germanicus
Revolts in the West
Sejanus
03 Caligula (28; r.37.03-41.01)
04 Claudius-I (64; r.41-54)
Julia Agrippina the Younger (44; fl.28-59)
Invasion of Britain (AD 43)
05 Nero (30; r.54.10-68.06)
Revolt in Britain, Boudicca
Nero’s Parthian War [1/5]
Nero’s Despotism
First Jewish Revolt [Part 1/2]
End of the Dynasty
Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
06 Galba
07 Otho
08 Vitellius
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
09 Vespasian (69; r.69-79)
First Jewish Revolt [Part 2/2]
Adjustments in the East, Domestic
11 Domitian (44; r.81-96)
Accession
Rhine-Danube Frontier [2/5], Final Years of the Dynasty
Nervan-Antonine Dynasty (96-193)
12 Nerva: Emperor (Nerva)
13 Trajan (63; r.98-117)
Trajan’s Parthian War [2/5], Kitos (Second Jewish) Revolt
15 Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161)
Further conquests in Britain, Armenia
17 Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180)
First Marcomannic War
18 Commodus (31; r.177-192)
Conspiracies, Dacia and Britain
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
19 Pertinax, 20 Didius Julianus
Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
Severan Dynasty (193-211)
21*Septimius Severus (65; r.193.04-211.02)
Civil War, [1 of 12]; Septimius Albinus (usurper) [1/2]
North Africa: Proconsularis, Mauretania and Numidia
Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
22*Caracalla (29; r.198-217), 23*Geta (22; r.209-211)
Alamanni and Goths, Caracalla’s Parthian War [5/5]
Military Anarchy (235-284)
28 Maximinus-I Thrax (u; c.65; r.235.03-238.05): Emperor
29*Gordian-I (u; Africa; c.79; r.238.03-04), 30*Gordian II (u; Africa; c.46; r.238.03-04), 31*Balbinus (u; Rome; c.60; r.238.04-07), 32*Pupienus (u; Rome; 68/73; r.238.04-07); Maximinus-1’s Civil War [2/12]
34 Philip-I the Arab, 35 Philip II: Emperors
36 Decius (c.50; r.249-251), 37 Herennius Etruscus (c.25; r.251); Persecution of Christians, Decius’ Gothic War [1/6]
43 Gallienus (c.50; r.253-268), 44 Saloninus (c.18; r.260.07); Rhine-Danube Frontier [4/5]; Usurpers, Gallienus’ Gothic War [3/6]
45 Claudius II Gothicus (64; r.41-54)
46 Aurelian (60/2; r.270-275)
Palmyrene Empire, End of the Gallic Empire
47 Tacitus, 48 Florianus, 49 Probus
Late Roman Empire (284-476)
53 Diocletian (67; r.284-305; d.312) (all→E), 54 Maximian (W)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Britannic Empire (286-296)
Christianity [1/3]
Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
55*Constantius-I Chlorus (W), 56*Galerius (E), 57*Severus (W), 58*Maxentius (W), 59*Constantine-I (Gaul→W→all), 60*Licinius (W→E), 61*Maximinus II Daia (W)(306-324)
Constantine-I/Maxentius’ Civil War (312) [5/12]
Constantine-I/Licinius’ (2nd) Civil War, [8/12]
62*Constantine II (Gaul), 63*Constans (Italy→W), 64*Constantius Ii (E→all)
Constantius II: Sassanid War [6/9], Civil [War 9/12]
64*Constantius II (44; r.337-361) (E→all): Sassanid War [6/9], Civil [9/12] War
HOME
Astronomy
CONTENTS
Basics
Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
Ecliptic
Solar System
Motions of the Planets
Conjunction and Opposition
Equinoxes and Solstices
Precession and Nutation
Zodiac
Calendars
Early European Astronomy
Greek (7th-2nd Century BC): Introduction, Geocentric Universe
Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
Western Europe
Ancient and Distant Lands (3200 BC-13th Century AD)
China
Egypt
India
Islam
Mesoamerica
Mesopotamia (c.2900-00-637)
Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
16th Century
17th Century
18th Century
19th Century
20th Century
Appendices
Chronology
Observatories: Alphabetical List
People: Alphabetical List (A)
Beginnings
CONTENTS
Earth and the Universe
Creation of the Universe
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Forming of the Solar System
Galaxies and the Stars
Inflationary Model of the Universe
Nucleosynthesis
Space-Time
Planet Earth
Archaeology
Antiquarians
Greece and Rome
Three-Age System
Ancient and Distant Lands
Aegean
Americas and Oceania
China and India
Egypt
Mesopotamia (b)
Antiquity of Man, Early Man
Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
Geological Time Scale
Continental Drift
Fossils and Dating
Supercontinents
Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction, Taxonomy
Precambrian Supereon (4600-541 mya)
Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
Ordovician Period (485-443 mya), land plants
Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Appendices
People: Alphabetical List
Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
Animal Classification: Scheme
Animal Classification: Sequences
Archaeology: Chronology
Evolution of Life: Chronology
People: Alphabetical List (B)
Plant Classification
Ancient Europe
Introduction
CONTENTS
An Outline History of Ancient Europe
Physical Geography of Europe
Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-present)
Introduction
Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
Chronology
Prehistory (1400 kya-3500 BC)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
NORTHWEST EUROPE (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
01 Greenland
02 Iceland
03 Faroe Islands
Ireland and Britain (Pretanic Isles)
Introduction
04 Ireland (Hibernia)
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (C2: 12.5-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (C2: 9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (C1: 4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
Late Iron Age (100-400)
Chronology
05 Britain (Britannia)
05A Scotland (Caledonia)
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
Roman Period (43-407)
Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
Invasion (AD 71)
Mons Graupius (83/4)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Invasion (209)
Picti and Scoti
Scottish Islands
Introduction (Scottish Islands)
Hebrides
Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
05B Wales (Cambria)
Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
Roman Period (48-410)
05C England
Introduction
Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
Introduction
Ferrous Metallurgy
Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
Roman Influence
Celtic Kings
Roman Period (43-410)
Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
Northern Frontier (79-184)
Introduction
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
Gallic Empire (260-274)
Carausian Revolt (286-296)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Barbarian Conspiracy (367-369)
Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
Associated Islands
Isle of Man
Isles of Scilly
Isle of Wight
Channel Islands
Northern Europe (9700-00-410)
CONTENTS
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
Introduction (Scandinavia)
06 Denmark
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
07 Norway (W)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age, Roman Period
08 Sweden (E)
Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Neolithic Monuments
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (410)
09 Finland
Introduction (Finland)
Mesolithic Period (8900-5300 BC)
Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-400)
NORTHEAST EUROPE – IN PREPARATION
Baltic States
Western Russia
Ancient Near East
CONTENTS (ane)
Egypt (3050-00-646)
An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
Physical Geography of Egypt
Prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
The Nile
Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
First Intermediate Period
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
Introduction (p)
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
Ramessids, Sea People
Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC): Thebes and Tanis, Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians
Late Period (664-332 BC)
Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
Roman Period (30-00-395)
Byzantine Period, (395-646)
Mesopotamia (c.2900-00-637)
Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC); Kish I-IV, Uruk I-III, Ur I- II, Lagash-I and Umma
Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
Gutian Period, Ur III Period (c.2141-c.1940 BC)
Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC): Hammurabi, Hammurabi’s Successors
Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (331-129 BC), Seleucus-I
Sassanian Period (224-637)
Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
Assyria (c.2000-608 BC)
Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC), Fall of Nineveh
Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
Prehistory of Asia Minor (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction
Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
Phrygia, Lycia
Achaemenid Period (546-333 BC)
Introduction
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
Greek Period (333-190 BC)
Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
Bithynia (376-74 BC)
Cappadocia (331-00-17)
Commagene (163-00-72)
Armenia (570-00-114)
Roman Period (190-00-395)
Syria (3300-00-637)
Physical Geography of Syria
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC) (S)
Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
Mitanni (1500-1260 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
Achaemenid Period, Greek Period; Seleucids
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Phoenicia (c.3300-00-637)
Prehistory
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC): Tyre, Assyrians, Babylonians
Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Palestine (c.3300-00-638)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC) (pa)
Introduction (pa)
Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC) (p)
Israelites, Judges
United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
Divided Monarchy, Houses of Jeroboam, Baasha, Zimri, Omri, Jehu, Shallum and Menahem, Pekah and Hoshea
Fall of Judah (586 BC)
Greek Period (333-63 BC)
Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
Nabataeans (312-00-106)
Roman Period (63-00-395) (pa)
Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
Herod the Great
Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
Persia (c.3200-00-651)
Prehistory; Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods
Median Period (728-549 BC)
Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC)
Greek Period (330-238 BC)
Parthian Arsacid Dynasty (238-00-224)
Armenia and Rome
Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
Byzantium
Appendices (ane)
Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
Ancient Greece
An Outline History of Ancient Greece
Physical Geography of Greece
Prehistory of Greece (700 kya-1350 BC): Palaeolithic, Neolithic
Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
Early Archaic Period (c.750-546 BC)
Homer (c.750 BC) and Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Colonial Expansion (c.750-c.550 BC)
Panhellenism,Tyranny
Northern Greece
Thessaly, Epirus
Central Greece
Phocis (Delphi)
Attica (Athens)
Introduction (Ancient Greece)
Cylon, Draco, Solon
Cleisthenes (c.570-c.507 BC, archon 525/4 BC)
Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
Introduction (sg)
Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
Laconia (Sparta)
Messenia (Messene)
Eastern Aegean
Ionia
Chios
Miletus
Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
Aeolis, Lesbos
Black Sea
Greek Cities: Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
Southern Italy
Greek Cities: Sicily; Syracuse, Gela
Western Greeks (c.580-446 BC) [1/2]
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC) (g)
Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
Salamis (480 BC)
Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
Delian League (478-454 BC)
Introduction
Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
After the Truce
Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
Introduction
Year One (431/0 BC) – Aegina
Year Two (430/429 BC): Plague at Athens
Year Four (428/427 BC): Mytilene
Year Five (427/426 BC): Corcyra
Year Six (426/425 BC): Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
Year Eight (424/423 BC): Megara, Delium
Year Ten (422/421 BC): Amphipolis
Interlude (421-413 BC)
Year Fifteen (417/416 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/415 BC), Melos
Year Nineteen (413/412 BC): Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
Year Twenty-One (411/410 BC): Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
Year Twenty-Two (410/409 BC): Cyzicus
Year Twenty-Six (406/405 BC): Notium, Arginusae
Western Greeks [2/2]
Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
Second Sicilian War (410-367 BC)
Syracuse
Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
Theban Hegemony (371-362 BC)
Shifting Alliances
Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
Subjugation of the Eastern Satrapies: Aria, Drangian and Arachosia
Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC): War against Perdiccas (321-319 BC); Cappadocia, Egypt, Nora
Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
Roman Period (146-00-395)
Julius Caesar (55; r.46-44 BC), Marc Antony (53; fl.44-30 BC)
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
Roman Republic
An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
Neolithic Chalcolithic
Early Iron Age (950-c.753 BC)
Early Peoples of Italy
Villanovans, Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Bronze Age (2300-950 BC)
Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
Introduction
Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
Introduction
Traditional Story
Etruscan Kings of Rome
Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
Society [2/4]
Religion, Plebeians
Government [1/3]
Assemblies
Magistrates
Conflict of the Orders (494-287 BC)
Sessations of the Plebeians
Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
Sabines, Triple Alliance
Volsci and the Aequi
Gallic Invasion of Rome
Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
Aequi, Volsci
Etruscans, Latins and the Hernici
Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
First Samnite War
Second (=Great) Samnite War
Third Samnite War
Gauls [2/2]
Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
Introduction
Pyrrhic War
Roads, Aqueducts
Chronology
Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica
North Africa
Return to Sicily
Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
Sardina
Illyria: First and Second wars with Rome
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
Preliminaries
War in Spain (218-201 BC) [1/7]
Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy
Hannibal in Southern Italy [1/2]
Revolt of Syracuse
First Macedonian War
War in Spain [3/7]
War in Africa
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Gallia Cisalpina [2/2]
Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
Hellenistic East
Second Macedonian War
Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
Introduction
Lusitanian War
Carthage (196-146 BC)
Third Punic War
Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
Society [2/2]
Slaves, Freedmen, Farmers
Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC)
Introduction
Jugurthine War
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
Introduction, Drusus
Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War
Sulla’s capture of Rome
Second Mithridatic War
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
Macedonia (97-62 BC)
Third Servile War (73-71 BC)
Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Pompey, Consulship (70, 55, 52 BC)
Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 55; fl.85-44 BC)
Introduction
Publius Clodius Pulcher
Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
Helvetii
Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
Death of Publius Clodius Pulcher
Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
Caesar’s Civil War (49-45 BC)
Caesar’s march on Rome
Campaign in Illyria (49 BC) [1/3]
War in Egypt (48/7 BC)
Campaign in Spain (45 BC) [2/2]
Gaius Octavius (=Octavian; 76; fl.47-00-14)
Antony’s Civil War, the Second Triumvirate
Treaties of Brundisium and Misenum
Octavian’s Illyrian Campaign
Antony in the East (41-30 BC)
Parthian Invasion
Last years of the Republic (30-27 BC)
Appendices (rr)
Prehistory, Bronze Age (rr), Early Iron Age (rr): Chronology (850 kya-770 BC) (rr)
Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
Roman Family Names
Aurelius (28)
Claudius (46)
Cornelius (61)
Flavius (81)
Julius (49)
Roman Empire
An Outline History of the Roman Empire (27-00-476)
Early Roman Empire (27-00-193)
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
01 Augustus (76; r.27.01-00-14.08)
Cantabrian Wars (27-19 BC)
Second Settlement of Augustus (23 BC)
Succession, Reforms
Eastern Provinces and Frontiers
Western Provinces and Frontiers (27-00-14)
Introduction
Illyrian Revolt, Teutoburg Forest
02 Tiberius (78; r.14.09-37.03)
Introduction
Germanicus
Revolts in the West
Sejanus
03 Caligula (28; r.37.03-41.01)
04 Claudius-I (64; r.41-54)
Julia Agrippina the Younger (44; fl.28-59)
Invasion of Britain (AD 43)
05 Nero (30; r.54.10-68.06)
Revolt in Britain, Boudicca
Nero’s Parthian War [1/5]
Nero’s Despotism
First Jewish Revolt [Part 1/2]
End of the Dynasty
Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
06 Galba
07 Otho
08 Vitellius
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
09 Vespasian (69; r.69-79)
First Jewish Revolt [Part 2/2]
Adjustments in the East, Domestic
11 Domitian (44; r.81-96)
Accession
Rhine-Danube Frontier [2/5], Final Years of the Dynasty
Nervan-Antonine Dynasty (96-193)
12 Nerva: Emperor (Nerva)
13 Trajan (63; r.98-117)
Trajan’s Parthian War [2/5], Kitos (Second Jewish) Revolt
15 Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161)
Further conquests in Britain, Armenia
17 Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180)
First Marcomannic War
18 Commodus (31; r.177-192)
Conspiracies, Dacia and Britain
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
19 Pertinax, 20 Didius Julianus
Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
Severan Dynasty (193-211)
21*Septimius Severus (65; r.193.04-211.02)
Civil War, [1 of 12]; Septimius Albinus (usurper) [1/2]
North Africa: Proconsularis, Mauretania and Numidia
Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
22*Caracalla (29; r.198-217), 23*Geta (22; r.209-211)
Alamanni and Goths, Caracalla’s Parthian War [5/5]
Military Anarchy (235-284)
28 Maximinus-I Thrax (u; c.65; r.235.03-238.05): Emperor
29*Gordian-I (u; Africa; c.79; r.238.03-04), 30*Gordian II (u; Africa; c.46; r.238.03-04), 31*Balbinus (u; Rome; c.60; r.238.04-07), 32*Pupienus (u; Rome; 68/73; r.238.04-07); Maximinus-1’s Civil War [2/12]
34 Philip-I the Arab, 35 Philip II: Emperors
36 Decius (c.50; r.249-251), 37 Herennius Etruscus (c.25; r.251); Persecution of Christians, Decius’ Gothic War [1/6]
43 Gallienus (c.50; r.253-268), 44 Saloninus (c.18; r.260.07); Rhine-Danube Frontier [4/5]; Usurpers, Gallienus’ Gothic War [3/6]
45 Claudius II Gothicus (64; r.41-54)
46 Aurelian (60/2; r.270-275)
Palmyrene Empire, End of the Gallic Empire
47 Tacitus, 48 Florianus, 49 Probus
Late Roman Empire (284-476)
53 Diocletian (67; r.284-305; d.312) (all→E), 54 Maximian (W)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Britannic Empire (286-296)
Christianity [1/3]
Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
55*Constantius-I Chlorus (W), 56*Galerius (E), 57*Severus (W), 58*Maxentius (W), 59*Constantine-I (Gaul→W→all), 60*Licinius (W→E), 61*Maximinus II Daia (W)(306-324)
Constantine-I/Maxentius’ Civil War (312) [5/12]
Constantine-I/Licinius’ (2nd) Civil War, [8/12]
62*Constantine II (Gaul), 63*Constans (Italy→W), 64*Constantius Ii (E→all)
Constantius II: Sassanid War [6/9], Civil [War 9/12]
64*Constantius II (44; r.337-361) (E→all): Sassanid War [6/9], Civil [9/12] War
Category:
Eastern Provinces and Frontiers
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