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  • Astronomy
    • CONTENTS
    • Basics
      • Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
      • Calendars
      • Conjunction and Opposition
      • Ecliptic
      • Equinoxes and Solstices
      • Motions of the Planets
      • Precession and Nutation
      • Solar System
      • Zodiac
    • Early European Astronomy
      • Greek
        • Greek (7th-2nd Century BC)
        • Geocentric Universe
      • Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
      • Western Europe
    • Ancient and Distant Lands (3200 BC-13th Century AD)
      • China
        • Calendars
        • Observation Instruments
        • Star Lists and Charts
      • Egypt
      • India
      • Islam
        • Introduction (A)
        • Doubts about Ptolemy
        • Observatories
      • Mesoamerica
      • Mesopotamia
    • Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
    • Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
      • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
      • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
      • Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
      • Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
      • Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
    • Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
      • 16th Century
        • Cepheids
      • 17th Century
        • Distances to the Stars
        • Halley’s Comet
        • Inverse Square Law
        • Longitude
        • Parallax
      • 18th Century
        • Annual Parallax
        • Black Holes
        • Bode’s Law
        • Milky Way
        • Nebulae and the Galaxy
        • Proper Motion
      • 19th Century
        • Doppler Effect
        • Magnitude
        • Relativity
        • Spectroscopy
        • Sunspots
      • 20th Century
        • Big Bang Theory
        • Expanding Universe
        • Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
        • Radio Astronomy
    • Appendices (A)
      • Astronomy: Chronology
      • Observatories: Alphabetical List
      • People: Alphabetical List (Astronomy)
  • Beginnings
    • CONTENTS
    • Earth and the Universe
      • Creation of the Universe
      • Dark Matter and Dark Energy
      • Forming of the Solar System
      • Galaxies and the Stars
      • Inflationary Model of the Universe
      • Nucleosynthesis
      • Space-Time
    • Planet Earth
      •  Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
      • Structure and the Palaeomagnetic Timescale
    • Archaeology
      • Greece and Rome
      • Antiquarians
      • Three-Age System
      • Ancient and Distant Lands
        • Egypt
        • Mesopotamia
        • China and India
        • Americas and Oceania
        • Aegean
      • Antiquity of Man, Early Man
    • Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
      • Geological Time Scale
      • Continental Drift
      • Fossils and Dating
      • Supercontinents
    • Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
      • Introduction, Taxonomy
      • Precambrian Superion (4600-541 mya)
        • Hadean Eon (4600-4000 mya), Earth molten
        • Archaean Eon (4000-2500 mya), Stromatolites
        • Proterozoic Eon (2500-541 mya), Eukaryotes
      • Phanerozoic Eon (541 mya-Present)
        • Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
          • Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
          • Ordovician Period (485-444 mya), land plants
          • Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
          • Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
          • Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
          • Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
        • Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
          • Triassic Period (252-201 mya), Lizards
          • Jurassic Period (201-145 mya)
            • Saurischians (‘lizard-hipped’); Theropods, Sauropodomorphsns
            • Ornithischians (‘bird-hipped’)
          • Cretaceous Period (145-66.0 mya), Birds
        • Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
          • Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
            • Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
            • Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
            • Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
            • Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
            • Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
          • Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
            • Pleistocene Epoch (2590-11.7 kya); Ice Age, humans
            • Holocene Epoch (9700 BC-present), Current Interglacial
    • Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
      • Hominoids, Hominids, Hominines
      • Hominins: Australopiths (ape-men), Hominans (humans)
    • Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
      • Palaeolithic (‘Old Stone’ Age) Period (3300-11.7 kya)
      • Mesolithic (‘Middle Stone’) Age (11.7-8.5 kya)
      • Neolithic (‘New Stone’ Age) Period (8.5-7.5 kya), Pottery
    • Metal Ages (5500 BC-Present)
      • Copper Age (5500-3300 BC)
      • Bronze Age (3300-1200 BC)
      • Iron Age (1200 BC-Present)
    • Appendices-beginnings
      • Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
        • Animal Classification: Scheme
        • Animal Classification: Sequences
      • Archaeology: Chronology
      • Evolution of Life: Chronology
      • People: Alphabetical List (Beginnings)
      • Plant Classification (Afterthought)
  • Ancient Europe
    • An Outline History of Ancient Europe
    • Physical Geography of Europe
    • Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-Present)
      • Introduction (Ancient Europe)
      • Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
      • Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
      • Chronology (13,600 mya-Present)
    • Prehistory (1400 kya-2100 BC)
      • Palaeolithic Period (1400-11.7 kya)
      • Mesolithic (7000-2500 BC)
      • Neolithic Period (4000-2100 BC)
    • Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
      • Bronze Age (3500-500 BC)
      • Iron Age (500-00-800)
    • Northwest Europe (9700-00-410)
      • Greenland
      • Iceland
      • Faroe Islands
      • Ireland and Britain (Pretanic Isles)
        • Introduction (Ireland and Britain)
        • 04 Ireland (Hibernia)
          • Introduction (Ireland)
          • Palaeolithic Period
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
          • Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
          • Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
            • Lebor Gabala Erenn
            • O’Rahilly’s historical model
          • Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
          • Late Iron Age (100-400), Myths, Druids
            • Myths, Druids
            • Legendary High Kings (1st-5th Centuries)
            • Celtic Tribes of Ireland (Ptolemy)
          • Chronology (04)
        • 05 Britain (Britannia)
          • 05A Scotland (Caledonia)
            • Introduction (Scotland)
            • Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
            • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
            • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments (s)
            • Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
            • Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
            • Roman Period (43-407)
              • Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
              • Invasion (AD 71)
              • Mons Graupius (83/4)
              • Hadrian’s Wall (122)
              • Invasion (209)
              • Picti and Scoti
            • Scottish Islands
              • Introduction (Scottish Islands)
              • Hebrides
            • Northern Isles
              • Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
              • Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
          • 05B Wales (Cambria)
            • Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
            • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
            • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic monuments
            • Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
            • Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
            • Roman Period (48-410)
              • Celtic Tribes of Wales, Conquest 
              • Occupation and Settlement (78-383)
          • 05C England
            • Introduction (England)
            • Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
              • Early Humans, Doggerland
            • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
            • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
              • Introduction (England)
              • Neolithic Monuments (05C)
              • Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, Bronze Age
            • Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
              • Wessex Culture, Deverel-Rimbury Culture, Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
            • Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
              • Introduction (England)
              • Ferrous Metallurgy
              • Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
              • Roman Influence
              • Celtic Kings
            • Roman Period (43-410)
              • Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
              • Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
              • Northern Border (201-146 BC)
                • Introduction (England)
                • Hadrian’s Wall (122)
              • Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211) (e)
              • Gallic Empire (260-274)
              • Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
              • Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
            • Associated Islands
              • Channel Islands
    • Northern Europe (9700-00-410)
      • Introduction (Scandinavia)
      • Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
        • Denmark
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
          • Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
          • Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
          • Roman Period (09-410)
        • Norway
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
        • Sweden
          • Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
          • Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
          • Roman Period (09-410)
      • Finland
        • Intoduction
        • Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
        • Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
        • Roman Period (09-400)
    • Northeast Europe (in preparation)
  • Ancient Near East
    • An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
    • Egypt (3050-00-646)
      • Physical Geography
      • prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
        • The Nile
        • Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
        • Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
        • Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
      • Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
      • Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
      • Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
      • Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
      • New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
        • Ramessids, Sea People
      • Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC)
      • Late Period (664-332 BC)
      • Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
        • Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
        • Roman Period  (30-00-395)
      • Byzantine Period, (395-646)
    • Mesopotamia (2900-00-637)
      • Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
        • Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
        • Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
      • Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC)
      • Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
      • Gutian Period, Ur III Period (c.2141-c.1940 BC)
      • Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
      • Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC)
      • Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
      • Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
      • Greek Period (331-129 BC)
        • Seleucus-I
      • Sassanian Period (224-637)
    • Assyria (2000-608 BC)
      • Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
      • Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC)
        • Fall of Nineveh
    • Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
      • Physical Geography
      • Prehistory (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
        • Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
      • Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
        • Introduction (Asia Minor)
        • Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
        • Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
      • Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
        • Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
        • Greek Colonization
          • Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
          • Greek Colonisation: Phrygia, Lycia
      • Greek Period (333-190 BC)
        • Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
        • Bithynia (376-74 BC)
        • Cappadocia (331-00-17)
        • Commagene (163-00-72)
        • Armenia (570-00-114)
        • Roman Period (190-00-395)
    • Syria (3300-00-637)
      • Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
        • Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
      • Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
      • Roman Period (63 BC-00-395)
    • Phoenicia (3300-00-637)
      • Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
      • Roman Period (63-00-395)
    • Palestine (3300-00-638)
      • Bronze Age: Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
      • Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC)
        • United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
        • Fall of Judah (586 BC)
      • Greek Period (333-63 BC)
        • Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
        • Nabataeans (312-00-1106)
      • Roman Period (63 BC-AD 395)
        • Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
          • Herod the Great
          • Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
        • Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
    • Persia (3200-00-651)
      • Prehistory; Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods 
      • Median Period (728-549 BC)
      • Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
        • Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC) 
      • Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
        • Byzantium
    • Appendices
      • Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
  • Ancient Greece
    • An Outline History of Ancient Greece
    • Physical Geography
    • Prehistory (700 kya-c.1350 BC)
    • Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
      • Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
      • Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
      • Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
        • Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
    • Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
      • Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
    • Early Archaic Period c.750-546 BC)
      • Homer and Hesiod
        • Hesiod (c.700 BC)
      • Colonial Expansion
      • Panhellenism and Tyranny
      • Northern Greece
        • Thessaly, Epirus
      • Central Greece
        • Phocis (Delphi)
        • Attica (Athens)
          • Introduction (Ancient Greece)
          • Cylon, Draco, Solon
      • Eastern Aegean
        • Ionia
          • Chios
          • Miletus
          • Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
        • Aeolis, Lesbos
      • Southern Greece
        • Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
        • Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
        • Laconia (Sparta)
      • Black Sea
        • Greek Cities, Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
      • Southern Italy
        • Greek Cities: Sicily; Syracuse, Gela
    • Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
      • Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
    • Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
      • Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
      • Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
      • Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
        • Ionian Revolt
        • Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
        • Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
    • Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
      • Delian League (478-454 BC)
        • Introduction, Delian League
        • Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
        • Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
      • First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
        • After the Truce
    • Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
      • Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
        • Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
        • Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
      • Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
        • Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
        • Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
          • Year Two (430/29 BC): Plague at Athens
          • Year Four (428/7 BC): Mytilene
          • Year Five (427/6 BC): Archidamian War (431-421 BC), Corcyra
          • Year Six (426/5 BC): Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
          • Year Eight (424/3BC); Megara, Delium
          • Year Ten (422/1 BC): Amphipolis
        • Interlude (421-413 BC)
          • Year Fifteen (417/6 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/5 BC), Melos
          • Year Nineteen (413/2 BC): Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
        • Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
          • Year Twenty-One (411/0 BC): Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
          • Year Twenty-Two (410/09 BC): Cyzicus
          • Year Twenty-Six (406/5 BC): Notium, Arginusae
    • Western Greeks (2/2) (367-331 BC)
      • Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
    • Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
      • Second Siciliian War (410-367 BC)
        • Syracuse
      • Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
        • Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
        • Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
          • Agesilaus II
        • Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
          • Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
      • Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
        • Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
      • Theban Hegenomy (371-362 BC)
        • Shifting Alliances
        • Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
      • Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
        • Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
        • Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
      • Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
        • Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
        • Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
        • Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
        • Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
    • Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
      • Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
      • Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC)
      • Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
        • Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
        • Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
        • Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
    • Roman Period (146-00-395)
      • Gaius Julius Caesar (48, r.46-44 BC), Mark Antony
    • Byzantine Period (395-1453)
      • Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
  • Roman Republic
    • An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
    • Physical Geography
    • Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
      • Palaeolithic (850-23 kya), Mesolithic (c.10-c.8 kya)
      • Neolithic and Chalcoithic
    • Bronze Age (2300-1150 BC)
    • Early Iron Age (c.900 BC)
      • Early Peoples of Italy 
      • Villanovans, Greeks; Phoenicians and Carthaginians
      • Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
        • Introduction (Roman Republic)
        • Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
    • Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
      • Introduction (Roman Republic)
      • Traditional Story
      • Etruscan Kings of Rome (616-509 BC)
      • Chronology
    • Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
      • Society [1/2]
        • Religion, Plebeians
      • Government [1/3]
        • Assemblies
        • Magistrates
      • Conflict of the Orders (485-287 BC)
        • Cessations of the Plebeians (494, 449, 445, 342, 287 BC)
      • Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
        • Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
          • Sabines, Triple Alliance
          • Volsci and the Aequi
        • Gallic Invasion of Rome (390/387 BC)
        • Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
          • Aequi, Volsci
          • Etruscans, Latins and Hernici
        • Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
          • First Samnite War
          • Second (=Great) Samnite War
          • Third Samnite War
        • Gauls (284-283 BC) [2/2]
        • Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
          • Pyrrhic War
        • Roads and Aqueducts
      • Chronology (509-264 BC)
    • Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
      • First Punic War (264-241 BC)
        • Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (264-257 BC)
        • North Africa (256-255 BC)
        • Return to Sicily (254-241 BC)
      • Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
        • Sardina
        • Illyria, First and Second wars with Rome
      • Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
        • Preliminaries
        • Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy (218-217 BC)
        • Hannibal in Southern Italy (217-215 BC) [1/2]
        • Revolt of Syracuse (214-211 BC)
        • War in Spain (211-206 BC) [3/7]
        • War in Africa (204-202 BC)
      • Northern Border (201-146 BC)
        • Gallia Cisalpina (201-183 BC) [2/2]
      • Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
        • Second Macedonian War (200-196 BC)
        • Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
      • Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
        • War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
        • War in Spain [4/7]: Lusitanian War (155-139 BC)
        • Carthage (196-146 BC)
          • Third Punic War (149-146 BC)
    • Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
      • Society [3/4]
      • Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
        • Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (31; fl.123-121 BC)
      • Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC
        • Introduction (Gaius Marius)
        • Jugurthine War (112-106 BC)
        • Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
      • Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
        • Introduction, Drusus
        • Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War (90-88 BC)
        • Sulla’s capture of Rome (88 BC)
        • Second Mithridatic War (83-82 BC)
      • Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
        • Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
        • Macedonia (97-62 BC)
        • Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
        • Pompey the Great
      • Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 56; fl.85-44 BC)
        • Introduction (Julius Caesar)
        • Publius Clodius Pulcher (41; fl.68-52 BC)
        • Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
          • Helvetii
          • Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
        • Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
          • Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
          • Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
      • Gaius Octavius (76; fl.47-00-14)
    • Appendices
      • Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
      • Prehistory, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age: Chronology (850 kya-770 BC)
      • Roman Family Names
        • Cornelius (61)
        • Aurelius (28)
        • Claudius (46)
        • Flavius (81)
        • Julius (49)
  • Roman Empire
    • An Outline History of the Roman Empire
    • Early Roman Empire (27-00-193)
      • Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
        • Augustus (76; r.27.01-00-14.08)
          • Cantabrian Wars (27-19 BC)
          • Second Settlement of Augustus (23 BC)
          • Succession, Reforms
          • Western Provinces and Frontiers (25-00-09)
        • Tiberius (78; r.14.09-37.03)
        • Caligula (28; r.37.03-41.01)
        • Claudius-I (64; r.41-54)
        • Nero (30; r.54.10-68.06)
      • Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
        • Galba, Otho
        • Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
          • Vespasian (69; r.69-79)
          • Domitian (44; r.81-96)
      • Nervan-Antonine Dynasty (96-193)
        • Nerva (67; r.96-98)
        • Trajan (63; r.98-117)
        • Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161)
        • Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180)
        • Commodus (31; r.177-192)
      • Year of the Five Emperors (193)
    • Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
      • Severan Dynasty (193-211)
        • Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
          • Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
      • Military Anarchy (235-284)
        • 28-32 Maximinus-I Thrax, Gordian-I, Gordian II, Balbinus, Pupienus [235-238]
          • Maximinus’ Civil War (238) [2/12]
        • Philip-I The Arab, Philip II
        • Gallienus, Saloninus
        • Claudius II Gothicus (64; r.41-54)
        • Aurelian
        • Decius, Herennius Etruscus
    • Late Roman Empire (284-476)
      • Diocletian, Maximian
      • Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
        • Tetrarchic Wars (306-324)
        • Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II
        • Valentinian-Theodosian Dynasty (364-455)
          • Valens, Valentinian II
      • Interregnum (392–425)
        • Honorus
        • Theodosius II
        • Constantine III, Constans II, Constantius III
        • Valentinian III
      • Restoration (425-455)
        • Marcian (450-457)
      • Non-dynastic (455-476) (W) and the Leonid Dynasty (455-518) (E)
        • Avitus (W)
        • Libius Severus, Anthemius
        • Olybrius, Glycerius, Leo II, Zeno [1/2], Julius Nepos, Romulus Augustulus, Basiliscus, Zeno [2/2]
    • Appendices
      • Chronology: Roman Empire
      • Roman Emperors (27-00-476)
      • Roman Usurpers (41-00-486)
  • Home
  • Astronomy
    • CONTENTS
    • Basics
      • Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
      • Calendars
      • Conjunction and Opposition
      • Ecliptic
      • Equinoxes and Solstices
      • Motions of the Planets
      • Precession and Nutation
      • Solar System
      • Zodiac
    • Early European Astronomy
      • Greek
        • Greek (7th-2nd Century BC)
        • Geocentric Universe
      • Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
      • Western Europe
    • Ancient and Distant Lands (3200 BC-13th Century AD)
      • China
        • Calendars
        • Observation Instruments
        • Star Lists and Charts
      • Egypt
      • India
      • Islam
        • Introduction (A)
        • Doubts about Ptolemy
        • Observatories
      • Mesoamerica
      • Mesopotamia
    • Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
    • Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
      • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
      • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
      • Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
      • Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
      • Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
    • Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
      • 16th Century
        • Cepheids
      • 17th Century
        • Distances to the Stars
        • Halley’s Comet
        • Inverse Square Law
        • Longitude
        • Parallax
      • 18th Century
        • Annual Parallax
        • Black Holes
        • Bode’s Law
        • Milky Way
        • Nebulae and the Galaxy
        • Proper Motion
      • 19th Century
        • Doppler Effect
        • Magnitude
        • Relativity
        • Spectroscopy
        • Sunspots
      • 20th Century
        • Big Bang Theory
        • Expanding Universe
        • Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
        • Radio Astronomy
    • Appendices (A)
      • Astronomy: Chronology
      • Observatories: Alphabetical List
      • People: Alphabetical List (Astronomy)
  • Beginnings
    • CONTENTS
    • Earth and the Universe
      • Creation of the Universe
      • Dark Matter and Dark Energy
      • Forming of the Solar System
      • Galaxies and the Stars
      • Inflationary Model of the Universe
      • Nucleosynthesis
      • Space-Time
    • Planet Earth
      •  Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
      • Structure and the Palaeomagnetic Timescale
    • Archaeology
      • Greece and Rome
      • Antiquarians
      • Three-Age System
      • Ancient and Distant Lands
        • Egypt
        • Mesopotamia
        • China and India
        • Americas and Oceania
        • Aegean
      • Antiquity of Man, Early Man
    • Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
      • Geological Time Scale
      • Continental Drift
      • Fossils and Dating
      • Supercontinents
    • Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
      • Introduction, Taxonomy
      • Precambrian Superion (4600-541 mya)
        • Hadean Eon (4600-4000 mya), Earth molten
        • Archaean Eon (4000-2500 mya), Stromatolites
        • Proterozoic Eon (2500-541 mya), Eukaryotes
      • Phanerozoic Eon (541 mya-Present)
        • Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
          • Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
          • Ordovician Period (485-444 mya), land plants
          • Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
          • Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
          • Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
          • Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
        • Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
          • Triassic Period (252-201 mya), Lizards
          • Jurassic Period (201-145 mya)
            • Saurischians (‘lizard-hipped’); Theropods, Sauropodomorphsns
            • Ornithischians (‘bird-hipped’)
          • Cretaceous Period (145-66.0 mya), Birds
        • Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
          • Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
            • Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
            • Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
            • Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
            • Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
            • Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
          • Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
            • Pleistocene Epoch (2590-11.7 kya); Ice Age, humans
            • Holocene Epoch (9700 BC-present), Current Interglacial
    • Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
      • Hominoids, Hominids, Hominines
      • Hominins: Australopiths (ape-men), Hominans (humans)
    • Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
      • Palaeolithic (‘Old Stone’ Age) Period (3300-11.7 kya)
      • Mesolithic (‘Middle Stone’) Age (11.7-8.5 kya)
      • Neolithic (‘New Stone’ Age) Period (8.5-7.5 kya), Pottery
    • Metal Ages (5500 BC-Present)
      • Copper Age (5500-3300 BC)
      • Bronze Age (3300-1200 BC)
      • Iron Age (1200 BC-Present)
    • Appendices-beginnings
      • Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
        • Animal Classification: Scheme
        • Animal Classification: Sequences
      • Archaeology: Chronology
      • Evolution of Life: Chronology
      • People: Alphabetical List (Beginnings)
      • Plant Classification (Afterthought)
  • Ancient Europe
    • An Outline History of Ancient Europe
    • Physical Geography of Europe
    • Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-Present)
      • Introduction (Ancient Europe)
      • Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
      • Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
      • Chronology (13,600 mya-Present)
    • Prehistory (1400 kya-2100 BC)
      • Palaeolithic Period (1400-11.7 kya)
      • Mesolithic (7000-2500 BC)
      • Neolithic Period (4000-2100 BC)
    • Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
      • Bronze Age (3500-500 BC)
      • Iron Age (500-00-800)
    • Northwest Europe (9700-00-410)
      • Greenland
      • Iceland
      • Faroe Islands
      • Ireland and Britain (Pretanic Isles)
        • Introduction (Ireland and Britain)
        • 04 Ireland (Hibernia)
          • Introduction (Ireland)
          • Palaeolithic Period
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
          • Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
          • Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
            • Lebor Gabala Erenn
            • O’Rahilly’s historical model
          • Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
          • Late Iron Age (100-400), Myths, Druids
            • Myths, Druids
            • Legendary High Kings (1st-5th Centuries)
            • Celtic Tribes of Ireland (Ptolemy)
          • Chronology (04)
        • 05 Britain (Britannia)
          • 05A Scotland (Caledonia)
            • Introduction (Scotland)
            • Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
            • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
            • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments (s)
            • Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
            • Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
            • Roman Period (43-407)
              • Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
              • Invasion (AD 71)
              • Mons Graupius (83/4)
              • Hadrian’s Wall (122)
              • Invasion (209)
              • Picti and Scoti
            • Scottish Islands
              • Introduction (Scottish Islands)
              • Hebrides
            • Northern Isles
              • Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
              • Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
          • 05B Wales (Cambria)
            • Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
            • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
            • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic monuments
            • Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
            • Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
            • Roman Period (48-410)
              • Celtic Tribes of Wales, Conquest 
              • Occupation and Settlement (78-383)
          • 05C England
            • Introduction (England)
            • Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
              • Early Humans, Doggerland
            • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
            • Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
              • Introduction (England)
              • Neolithic Monuments (05C)
              • Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, Bronze Age
            • Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
              • Wessex Culture, Deverel-Rimbury Culture, Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
            • Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
              • Introduction (England)
              • Ferrous Metallurgy
              • Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
              • Roman Influence
              • Celtic Kings
            • Roman Period (43-410)
              • Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
              • Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
              • Northern Border (201-146 BC)
                • Introduction (England)
                • Hadrian’s Wall (122)
              • Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211) (e)
              • Gallic Empire (260-274)
              • Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
              • Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
            • Associated Islands
              • Channel Islands
    • Northern Europe (9700-00-410)
      • Introduction (Scandinavia)
      • Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
        • Denmark
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
          • Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
          • Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
          • Roman Period (09-410)
        • Norway
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
        • Sweden
          • Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
          • Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
          • Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
          • Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
          • Roman Period (09-410)
      • Finland
        • Intoduction
        • Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
        • Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
        • Roman Period (09-400)
    • Northeast Europe (in preparation)
  • Ancient Near East
    • An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
    • Egypt (3050-00-646)
      • Physical Geography
      • prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
        • The Nile
        • Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
        • Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
        • Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
      • Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
      • Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
      • Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
      • Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
      • New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
        • Ramessids, Sea People
      • Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC)
      • Late Period (664-332 BC)
      • Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
        • Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
        • Roman Period  (30-00-395)
      • Byzantine Period, (395-646)
    • Mesopotamia (2900-00-637)
      • Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
        • Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
        • Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
      • Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC)
      • Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
      • Gutian Period, Ur III Period (c.2141-c.1940 BC)
      • Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
      • Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC)
      • Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
      • Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
      • Greek Period (331-129 BC)
        • Seleucus-I
      • Sassanian Period (224-637)
    • Assyria (2000-608 BC)
      • Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
      • Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC)
        • Fall of Nineveh
    • Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
      • Physical Geography
      • Prehistory (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
        • Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
      • Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
        • Introduction (Asia Minor)
        • Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
        • Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
      • Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
        • Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
        • Greek Colonization
          • Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
          • Greek Colonisation: Phrygia, Lycia
      • Greek Period (333-190 BC)
        • Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
        • Bithynia (376-74 BC)
        • Cappadocia (331-00-17)
        • Commagene (163-00-72)
        • Armenia (570-00-114)
        • Roman Period (190-00-395)
    • Syria (3300-00-637)
      • Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
        • Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
      • Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
      • Roman Period (63 BC-00-395)
    • Phoenicia (3300-00-637)
      • Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
      • Roman Period (63-00-395)
    • Palestine (3300-00-638)
      • Bronze Age: Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
      • Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC)
        • United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
        • Fall of Judah (586 BC)
      • Greek Period (333-63 BC)
        • Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
        • Nabataeans (312-00-1106)
      • Roman Period (63 BC-AD 395)
        • Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
          • Herod the Great
          • Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
        • Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
    • Persia (3200-00-651)
      • Prehistory; Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods 
      • Median Period (728-549 BC)
      • Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
        • Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC) 
      • Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
        • Byzantium
    • Appendices
      • Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
  • Ancient Greece
    • An Outline History of Ancient Greece
    • Physical Geography
    • Prehistory (700 kya-c.1350 BC)
    • Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
      • Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
      • Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
      • Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
        • Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
    • Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
      • Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
    • Early Archaic Period c.750-546 BC)
      • Homer and Hesiod
        • Hesiod (c.700 BC)
      • Colonial Expansion
      • Panhellenism and Tyranny
      • Northern Greece
        • Thessaly, Epirus
      • Central Greece
        • Phocis (Delphi)
        • Attica (Athens)
          • Introduction (Ancient Greece)
          • Cylon, Draco, Solon
      • Eastern Aegean
        • Ionia
          • Chios
          • Miletus
          • Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
        • Aeolis, Lesbos
      • Southern Greece
        • Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
        • Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
        • Laconia (Sparta)
      • Black Sea
        • Greek Cities, Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
      • Southern Italy
        • Greek Cities: Sicily; Syracuse, Gela
    • Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
      • Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
    • Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
      • Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
      • Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
      • Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
        • Ionian Revolt
        • Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
        • Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
    • Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
      • Delian League (478-454 BC)
        • Introduction, Delian League
        • Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
        • Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
      • First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
        • After the Truce
    • Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
      • Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
        • Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
        • Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
      • Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
        • Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
        • Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
          • Year Two (430/29 BC): Plague at Athens
          • Year Four (428/7 BC): Mytilene
          • Year Five (427/6 BC): Archidamian War (431-421 BC), Corcyra
          • Year Six (426/5 BC): Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
          • Year Eight (424/3BC); Megara, Delium
          • Year Ten (422/1 BC): Amphipolis
        • Interlude (421-413 BC)
          • Year Fifteen (417/6 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/5 BC), Melos
          • Year Nineteen (413/2 BC): Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
        • Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
          • Year Twenty-One (411/0 BC): Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
          • Year Twenty-Two (410/09 BC): Cyzicus
          • Year Twenty-Six (406/5 BC): Notium, Arginusae
    • Western Greeks (2/2) (367-331 BC)
      • Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
    • Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
      • Second Siciliian War (410-367 BC)
        • Syracuse
      • Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
        • Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
        • Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
          • Agesilaus II
        • Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
          • Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
      • Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
        • Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
      • Theban Hegenomy (371-362 BC)
        • Shifting Alliances
        • Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
      • Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
        • Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
        • Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
      • Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
        • Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
        • Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
        • Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
        • Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
    • Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
      • Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
      • Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC)
      • Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
        • Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
        • Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
        • Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
    • Roman Period (146-00-395)
      • Gaius Julius Caesar (48, r.46-44 BC), Mark Antony
    • Byzantine Period (395-1453)
      • Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
  • Roman Republic
    • An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
    • Physical Geography
    • Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
      • Palaeolithic (850-23 kya), Mesolithic (c.10-c.8 kya)
      • Neolithic and Chalcoithic
    • Bronze Age (2300-1150 BC)
    • Early Iron Age (c.900 BC)
      • Early Peoples of Italy 
      • Villanovans, Greeks; Phoenicians and Carthaginians
      • Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
        • Introduction (Roman Republic)
        • Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
    • Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
      • Introduction (Roman Republic)
      • Traditional Story
      • Etruscan Kings of Rome (616-509 BC)
      • Chronology
    • Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
      • Society [1/2]
        • Religion, Plebeians
      • Government [1/3]
        • Assemblies
        • Magistrates
      • Conflict of the Orders (485-287 BC)
        • Cessations of the Plebeians (494, 449, 445, 342, 287 BC)
      • Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
        • Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
          • Sabines, Triple Alliance
          • Volsci and the Aequi
        • Gallic Invasion of Rome (390/387 BC)
        • Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
          • Aequi, Volsci
          • Etruscans, Latins and Hernici
        • Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
          • First Samnite War
          • Second (=Great) Samnite War
          • Third Samnite War
        • Gauls (284-283 BC) [2/2]
        • Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
          • Pyrrhic War
        • Roads and Aqueducts
      • Chronology (509-264 BC)
    • Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
      • First Punic War (264-241 BC)
        • Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (264-257 BC)
        • North Africa (256-255 BC)
        • Return to Sicily (254-241 BC)
      • Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
        • Sardina
        • Illyria, First and Second wars with Rome
      • Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
        • Preliminaries
        • Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy (218-217 BC)
        • Hannibal in Southern Italy (217-215 BC) [1/2]
        • Revolt of Syracuse (214-211 BC)
        • War in Spain (211-206 BC) [3/7]
        • War in Africa (204-202 BC)
      • Northern Border (201-146 BC)
        • Gallia Cisalpina (201-183 BC) [2/2]
      • Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
        • Second Macedonian War (200-196 BC)
        • Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
      • Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
        • War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
        • War in Spain [4/7]: Lusitanian War (155-139 BC)
        • Carthage (196-146 BC)
          • Third Punic War (149-146 BC)
    • Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
      • Society [3/4]
      • Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
        • Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (31; fl.123-121 BC)
      • Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC
        • Introduction (Gaius Marius)
        • Jugurthine War (112-106 BC)
        • Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
      • Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
        • Introduction, Drusus
        • Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War (90-88 BC)
        • Sulla’s capture of Rome (88 BC)
        • Second Mithridatic War (83-82 BC)
      • Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
        • Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
        • Macedonia (97-62 BC)
        • Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
        • Pompey the Great
      • Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 56; fl.85-44 BC)
        • Introduction (Julius Caesar)
        • Publius Clodius Pulcher (41; fl.68-52 BC)
        • Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
          • Helvetii
          • Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
        • Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
          • Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
          • Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
      • Gaius Octavius (76; fl.47-00-14)
    • Appendices
      • Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
      • Prehistory, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age: Chronology (850 kya-770 BC)
      • Roman Family Names
        • Cornelius (61)
        • Aurelius (28)
        • Claudius (46)
        • Flavius (81)
        • Julius (49)
  • Roman Empire
    • An Outline History of the Roman Empire
    • Early Roman Empire (27-00-193)
      • Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
        • Augustus (76; r.27.01-00-14.08)
          • Cantabrian Wars (27-19 BC)
          • Second Settlement of Augustus (23 BC)
          • Succession, Reforms
          • Western Provinces and Frontiers (25-00-09)
        • Tiberius (78; r.14.09-37.03)
        • Caligula (28; r.37.03-41.01)
        • Claudius-I (64; r.41-54)
        • Nero (30; r.54.10-68.06)
      • Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
        • Galba, Otho
        • Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
          • Vespasian (69; r.69-79)
          • Domitian (44; r.81-96)
      • Nervan-Antonine Dynasty (96-193)
        • Nerva (67; r.96-98)
        • Trajan (63; r.98-117)
        • Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161)
        • Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180)
        • Commodus (31; r.177-192)
      • Year of the Five Emperors (193)
    • Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
      • Severan Dynasty (193-211)
        • Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
          • Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
      • Military Anarchy (235-284)
        • 28-32 Maximinus-I Thrax, Gordian-I, Gordian II, Balbinus, Pupienus [235-238]
          • Maximinus’ Civil War (238) [2/12]
        • Philip-I The Arab, Philip II
        • Gallienus, Saloninus
        • Claudius II Gothicus (64; r.41-54)
        • Aurelian
        • Decius, Herennius Etruscus
    • Late Roman Empire (284-476)
      • Diocletian, Maximian
      • Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
        • Tetrarchic Wars (306-324)
        • Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II
        • Valentinian-Theodosian Dynasty (364-455)
          • Valens, Valentinian II
      • Interregnum (392–425)
        • Honorus
        • Theodosius II
        • Constantine III, Constans II, Constantius III
        • Valentinian III
      • Restoration (425-455)
        • Marcian (450-457)
      • Non-dynastic (455-476) (W) and the Leonid Dynasty (455-518) (E)
        • Avitus (W)
        • Libius Severus, Anthemius
        • Olybrius, Glycerius, Leo II, Zeno [1/2], Julius Nepos, Romulus Augustulus, Basiliscus, Zeno [2/2]
    • Appendices
      • Chronology: Roman Empire
      • Roman Emperors (27-00-476)
      • Roman Usurpers (41-00-486)

Category: Antiquity of Man, Early Man

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Archaeology, Antiquity of Man, Early Man

Beginnings, Archaeology: Antiquity of Man, Early Man

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