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Astronomy
CONTENTS
Basics
Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
Calendars
Conjunction and Opposition
Ecliptic
Equinoxes and Solstices
Motions of the Planets
Precession and Nutation
Solar System
Zodiac
Early European Astronomy
Greek
Greek (7th-2nd Century BC)
Geocentric Universe
Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
Western Europe
Ancient and Distant Lands (3200 BC-13th Century AD)
China
Calendars
Observation Instruments
Star Lists and Charts
Egypt
India
Islam
Introduction (A)
Doubts about Ptolemy
Observatories
Mesoamerica
Mesopotamia
Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
16th Century
Cepheids
17th Century
Distances to the Stars
Halley’s Comet
Inverse Square Law
Longitude
Parallax
18th Century
Annual Parallax
Black Holes
Bode’s Law
Milky Way
Nebulae and the Galaxy
Proper Motion
19th Century
Doppler Effect
Magnitude
Relativity
Spectroscopy
Sunspots
20th Century
Big Bang Theory
Expanding Universe
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Radio Astronomy
Appendices (A)
Astronomy: Chronology
Observatories: Alphabetical List
People: Alphabetical List (Astronomy)
Beginnings
CONTENTS
Earth and the Universe
Creation of the Universe
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Forming of the Solar System
Galaxies and the Stars
Inflationary Model of the Universe
Nucleosynthesis
Space-Time
Planet Earth
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
Structure and the Palaeomagnetic Timescale
Archaeology
Greece and Rome
Antiquarians
Three-Age System
Ancient and Distant Lands
Egypt
Mesopotamia
China and India
Americas and Oceania
Aegean
Antiquity of Man, Early Man
Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
Geological Time Scale
Continental Drift
Fossils and Dating
Supercontinents
Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction, Taxonomy
Precambrian Superion (4600-541 mya)
Hadean Eon (4600-4000 mya), Earth molten
Archaean Eon (4000-2500 mya), Stromatolites
Proterozoic Eon (2500-541 mya), Eukaryotes
Phanerozoic Eon (541 mya-Present)
Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
Ordovician Period (485-444 mya), land plants
Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
Triassic Period (252-201 mya), Lizards
Jurassic Period (201-145 mya)
Saurischians (‘lizard-hipped’); Theropods, Sauropodomorphsns
Ornithischians (‘bird-hipped’)
Cretaceous Period (145-66.0 mya), Birds
Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
Pleistocene Epoch (2590-11.7 kya); Ice Age, humans
Holocene Epoch (9700 BC-present), Current Interglacial
Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
Hominoids, Hominids, Hominines
Hominins: Australopiths (ape-men), Hominans (humans)
Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
Palaeolithic (‘Old Stone’ Age) Period (3300-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic (‘Middle Stone’) Age (11.7-8.5 kya)
Neolithic (‘New Stone’ Age) Period (8.5-7.5 kya), Pottery
Metal Ages (5500 BC-Present)
Copper Age (5500-3300 BC)
Bronze Age (3300-1200 BC)
Iron Age (1200 BC-Present)
Appendices-beginnings
Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
Animal Classification: Scheme
Animal Classification: Sequences
Archaeology: Chronology
Evolution of Life: Chronology
People: Alphabetical List (Beginnings)
Plant Classification (Afterthought)
Ancient Europe
An Outline History of Ancient Europe
Physical Geography of Europe
Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction (Ancient Europe)
Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
Chronology (13,600 mya-Present)
Prehistory (1400 kya-2100 BC)
Palaeolithic Period (1400-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic (7000-2500 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2100 BC)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Bronze Age (3500-500 BC)
Iron Age (500-00-800)
Northwest Europe (9700-00-410)
Greenland
Iceland
Faroe Islands
Ireland and Britain (Pretanic Isles)
Introduction (Ireland and Britain)
04 Ireland (Hibernia)
Introduction (Ireland)
Palaeolithic Period
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
Lebor Gabala Erenn
O’Rahilly’s historical model
Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
Late Iron Age (100-400), Myths, Druids
Myths, Druids
Legendary High Kings (1st-5th Centuries)
Celtic Tribes of Ireland (Ptolemy)
Chronology (04)
05 Britain (Britannia)
05A Scotland (Caledonia)
Introduction (Scotland)
Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments (s)
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
Roman Period (43-407)
Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
Invasion (AD 71)
Mons Graupius (83/4)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Invasion (209)
Picti and Scoti
Scottish Islands
Introduction (Scottish Islands)
Hebrides
Northern Isles
Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
05B Wales (Cambria)
Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
Roman Period (48-410)
Celtic Tribes of Wales, Conquest
Occupation and Settlement (78-383)
05C England
Introduction (England)
Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
Early Humans, Doggerland
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Introduction (England)
Neolithic Monuments (05C)
Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, Bronze Age
Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
Wessex Culture, Deverel-Rimbury Culture, Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
Introduction (England)
Ferrous Metallurgy
Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
Roman Influence
Celtic Kings
Roman Period (43-410)
Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Introduction (England)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211) (e)
Gallic Empire (260-274)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
Associated Islands
Channel Islands
Northern Europe (9700-00-410)
Introduction (Scandinavia)
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
Denmark
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
Norway
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Sweden
Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
Finland
Intoduction
Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-400)
Northeast Europe (in preparation)
Ancient Near East
An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
Egypt (3050-00-646)
Physical Geography
prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
The Nile
Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
Ramessids, Sea People
Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC)
Late Period (664-332 BC)
Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
Roman Period (30-00-395)
Byzantine Period, (395-646)
Mesopotamia (2900-00-637)
Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC)
Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
Gutian Period, Ur III Period (c.2141-c.1940 BC)
Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC)
Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (331-129 BC)
Seleucus-I
Sassanian Period (224-637)
Assyria (2000-608 BC)
Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC)
Fall of Nineveh
Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
Physical Geography
Prehistory (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction (Asia Minor)
Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
Greek Colonization
Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
Greek Colonisation: Phrygia, Lycia
Greek Period (333-190 BC)
Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
Bithynia (376-74 BC)
Cappadocia (331-00-17)
Commagene (163-00-72)
Armenia (570-00-114)
Roman Period (190-00-395)
Syria (3300-00-637)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
Roman Period (63 BC-00-395)
Phoenicia (3300-00-637)
Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Palestine (3300-00-638)
Bronze Age: Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC)
United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
Fall of Judah (586 BC)
Greek Period (333-63 BC)
Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
Nabataeans (312-00-1106)
Roman Period (63 BC-AD 395)
Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
Herod the Great
Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
Persia (3200-00-651)
Prehistory; Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods
Median Period (728-549 BC)
Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC)
Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
Byzantium
Appendices
Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
Ancient Greece
An Outline History of Ancient Greece
Physical Geography
Prehistory (700 kya-c.1350 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
Early Archaic Period c.750-546 BC)
Homer and Hesiod
Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Colonial Expansion
Panhellenism and Tyranny
Northern Greece
Thessaly, Epirus
Central Greece
Phocis (Delphi)
Attica (Athens)
Introduction (Ancient Greece)
Cylon, Draco, Solon
Eastern Aegean
Ionia
Chios
Miletus
Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
Aeolis, Lesbos
Southern Greece
Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
Laconia (Sparta)
Black Sea
Greek Cities, Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
Southern Italy
Greek Cities: Sicily; Syracuse, Gela
Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
Ionian Revolt
Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
Delian League (478-454 BC)
Introduction, Delian League
Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
After the Truce
Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
Year Two (430/29 BC): Plague at Athens
Year Four (428/7 BC): Mytilene
Year Five (427/6 BC): Archidamian War (431-421 BC), Corcyra
Year Six (426/5 BC): Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
Year Eight (424/3BC); Megara, Delium
Year Ten (422/1 BC): Amphipolis
Interlude (421-413 BC)
Year Fifteen (417/6 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/5 BC), Melos
Year Nineteen (413/2 BC): Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
Year Twenty-One (411/0 BC): Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
Year Twenty-Two (410/09 BC): Cyzicus
Year Twenty-Six (406/5 BC): Notium, Arginusae
Western Greeks (2/2) (367-331 BC)
Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
Second Siciliian War (410-367 BC)
Syracuse
Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
Theban Hegenomy (371-362 BC)
Shifting Alliances
Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC)
Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
Roman Period (146-00-395)
Gaius Julius Caesar (48, r.46-44 BC), Mark Antony
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
Roman Republic
An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
Physical Geography
Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
Palaeolithic (850-23 kya), Mesolithic (c.10-c.8 kya)
Neolithic and Chalcoithic
Bronze Age (2300-1150 BC)
Early Iron Age (c.900 BC)
Early Peoples of Italy
Villanovans, Greeks; Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
Introduction (Roman Republic)
Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
Introduction (Roman Republic)
Traditional Story
Etruscan Kings of Rome (616-509 BC)
Chronology
Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
Society [1/2]
Religion, Plebeians
Government [1/3]
Assemblies
Magistrates
Conflict of the Orders (485-287 BC)
Cessations of the Plebeians (494, 449, 445, 342, 287 BC)
Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
Sabines, Triple Alliance
Volsci and the Aequi
Gallic Invasion of Rome (390/387 BC)
Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
Aequi, Volsci
Etruscans, Latins and Hernici
Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
First Samnite War
Second (=Great) Samnite War
Third Samnite War
Gauls (284-283 BC) [2/2]
Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
Pyrrhic War
Roads and Aqueducts
Chronology (509-264 BC)
Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (264-257 BC)
North Africa (256-255 BC)
Return to Sicily (254-241 BC)
Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
Sardina
Illyria, First and Second wars with Rome
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
Preliminaries
Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy (218-217 BC)
Hannibal in Southern Italy (217-215 BC) [1/2]
Revolt of Syracuse (214-211 BC)
War in Spain (211-206 BC) [3/7]
War in Africa (204-202 BC)
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Gallia Cisalpina (201-183 BC) [2/2]
Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
Second Macedonian War (200-196 BC)
Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
War in Spain [4/7]: Lusitanian War (155-139 BC)
Carthage (196-146 BC)
Third Punic War (149-146 BC)
Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
Society [3/4]
Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (31; fl.123-121 BC)
Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC
Introduction (Gaius Marius)
Jugurthine War (112-106 BC)
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
Introduction, Drusus
Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War (90-88 BC)
Sulla’s capture of Rome (88 BC)
Second Mithridatic War (83-82 BC)
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
Macedonia (97-62 BC)
Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Pompey the Great
Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 56; fl.85-44 BC)
Introduction (Julius Caesar)
Publius Clodius Pulcher (41; fl.68-52 BC)
Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
Helvetii
Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
Gaius Octavius (76; fl.47-00-14)
Appendices
Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
Prehistory, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age: Chronology (850 kya-770 BC)
Roman Family Names
Cornelius (61)
Aurelius (28)
Claudius (46)
Flavius (81)
Julius (49)
Roman Empire
An Outline History of the Roman Empire
Early Roman Empire (27-00-193)
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
Augustus (76; r.27.01-00-14.08)
Cantabrian Wars (27-19 BC)
Second Settlement of Augustus (23 BC)
Succession, Reforms
Western Provinces and Frontiers (25-00-09)
Tiberius (78; r.14.09-37.03)
Caligula (28; r.37.03-41.01)
Claudius-I (64; r.41-54)
Nero (30; r.54.10-68.06)
Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
Galba, Otho
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
Vespasian (69; r.69-79)
Domitian (44; r.81-96)
Nervan-Antonine Dynasty (96-193)
Nerva (67; r.96-98)
Trajan (63; r.98-117)
Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161)
Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180)
Commodus (31; r.177-192)
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
Severan Dynasty (193-211)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
Military Anarchy (235-284)
28-32 Maximinus-I Thrax, Gordian-I, Gordian II, Balbinus, Pupienus [235-238]
Maximinus’ Civil War (238) [2/12]
Philip-I The Arab, Philip II
Gallienus, Saloninus
Claudius II Gothicus (64; r.41-54)
Aurelian
Decius, Herennius Etruscus
Late Roman Empire (284-476)
Diocletian, Maximian
Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
Tetrarchic Wars (306-324)
Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II
Valentinian-Theodosian Dynasty (364-455)
Valens, Valentinian II
Interregnum (392–425)
Honorus
Theodosius II
Constantine III, Constans II, Constantius III
Valentinian III
Restoration (425-455)
Marcian (450-457)
Non-dynastic (455-476) (W) and the Leonid Dynasty (455-518) (E)
Avitus (W)
Libius Severus, Anthemius
Olybrius, Glycerius, Leo II, Zeno [1/2], Julius Nepos, Romulus Augustulus, Basiliscus, Zeno [2/2]
Appendices
Chronology: Roman Empire
Roman Emperors (27-00-476)
Roman Usurpers (41-00-486)
Home
Astronomy
CONTENTS
Basics
Apparent Motions of the Sun and Stars
Calendars
Conjunction and Opposition
Ecliptic
Equinoxes and Solstices
Motions of the Planets
Precession and Nutation
Solar System
Zodiac
Early European Astronomy
Greek
Greek (7th-2nd Century BC)
Geocentric Universe
Rome (1st Century BC to 6th Century AD)
Western Europe
Ancient and Distant Lands (3200 BC-13th Century AD)
China
Calendars
Observation Instruments
Star Lists and Charts
Egypt
India
Islam
Introduction (A)
Doubts about Ptolemy
Observatories
Mesoamerica
Mesopotamia
Medieval European Astronomy (5th-13th Century)
Renaissance (14th-15th Century)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Modern Era (16th Century-Present)
16th Century
Cepheids
17th Century
Distances to the Stars
Halley’s Comet
Inverse Square Law
Longitude
Parallax
18th Century
Annual Parallax
Black Holes
Bode’s Law
Milky Way
Nebulae and the Galaxy
Proper Motion
19th Century
Doppler Effect
Magnitude
Relativity
Spectroscopy
Sunspots
20th Century
Big Bang Theory
Expanding Universe
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Radio Astronomy
Appendices (A)
Astronomy: Chronology
Observatories: Alphabetical List
People: Alphabetical List (Astronomy)
Beginnings
CONTENTS
Earth and the Universe
Creation of the Universe
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Forming of the Solar System
Galaxies and the Stars
Inflationary Model of the Universe
Nucleosynthesis
Space-Time
Planet Earth
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
Structure and the Palaeomagnetic Timescale
Archaeology
Greece and Rome
Antiquarians
Three-Age System
Ancient and Distant Lands
Egypt
Mesopotamia
China and India
Americas and Oceania
Aegean
Antiquity of Man, Early Man
Geological Time (4600 kya-present)
Geological Time Scale
Continental Drift
Fossils and Dating
Supercontinents
Evolution of Life (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction, Taxonomy
Precambrian Superion (4600-541 mya)
Hadean Eon (4600-4000 mya), Earth molten
Archaean Eon (4000-2500 mya), Stromatolites
Proterozoic Eon (2500-541 mya), Eukaryotes
Phanerozoic Eon (541 mya-Present)
Palaeozoic Era (541-252 mya)
Cambrian Period (541-485 mya), Invertebrates
Ordovician Period (485-444 mya), land plants
Silurian Period (444-419 mya), jawed fish
Devonian Period (419-359 mya), Amphibians
Carboniferous Period (359-299 mya), Reptiles
Permian Period (299-252 mya), Seed Plants
Mesozoic Era (252-66 mya)
Triassic Period (252-201 mya), Lizards
Jurassic Period (201-145 mya)
Saurischians (‘lizard-hipped’); Theropods, Sauropodomorphsns
Ornithischians (‘bird-hipped’)
Cretaceous Period (145-66.0 mya), Birds
Cenozoic Era (66 mya-Present)
Neogene Period (66-2.58 mya)
Palaeocene Epoch (66.0-56.0 mya), Mammals
Eocene Epoch (56.0-33.9 mya), Modern Mammals
Oligocene Epoch (33.9-23.0 mya), Ruminants
Miocene Epoch (23.0-5.33 mya), Elephants
Pliocene Epoch (5.33-2.59 mya, Australopithecines
Quaternary Period (2.59 mya-Present)
Pleistocene Epoch (2590-11.7 kya); Ice Age, humans
Holocene Epoch (9700 BC-present), Current Interglacial
Evolution of Man (25-1.9 mya) – Primates
Hominoids, Hominids, Hominines
Hominins: Australopiths (ape-men), Hominans (humans)
Stone Ages (3300-7.5 kya)
Palaeolithic (‘Old Stone’ Age) Period (3300-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic (‘Middle Stone’) Age (11.7-8.5 kya)
Neolithic (‘New Stone’ Age) Period (8.5-7.5 kya), Pottery
Metal Ages (5500 BC-Present)
Copper Age (5500-3300 BC)
Bronze Age (3300-1200 BC)
Iron Age (1200 BC-Present)
Appendices-beginnings
Animal Classification (Just a thought!)
Animal Classification: Scheme
Animal Classification: Sequences
Archaeology: Chronology
Evolution of Life: Chronology
People: Alphabetical List (Beginnings)
Plant Classification (Afterthought)
Ancient Europe
An Outline History of Ancient Europe
Physical Geography of Europe
Geological History of Europe (4600 mya-Present)
Introduction (Ancient Europe)
Evolution of the Continents (3636 mya-Present)
Quaternary Ice Age (2580 mya-present): Pollen Zoning
Chronology (13,600 mya-Present)
Prehistory (1400 kya-2100 BC)
Palaeolithic Period (1400-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic (7000-2500 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2100 BC)
Metal Ages (3500-00-800)
Bronze Age (3500-500 BC)
Iron Age (500-00-800)
Northwest Europe (9700-00-410)
Greenland
Iceland
Faroe Islands
Ireland and Britain (Pretanic Isles)
Introduction (Ireland and Britain)
04 Ireland (Hibernia)
Introduction (Ireland)
Palaeolithic Period
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Copper Age (2500-2000 BC)
Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
Lebor Gabala Erenn
O’Rahilly’s historical model
Early Iron Age (500-00-100)
Late Iron Age (100-400), Myths, Druids
Myths, Druids
Legendary High Kings (1st-5th Centuries)
Celtic Tribes of Ireland (Ptolemy)
Chronology (04)
05 Britain (Britannia)
05A Scotland (Caledonia)
Introduction (Scotland)
Palaeolithic Period (14-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic Monuments (s)
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-71)
Roman Period (43-407)
Celtic Tribes of Scotland (Ptolemy)
Invasion (AD 71)
Mons Graupius (83/4)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Invasion (209)
Picti and Scoti
Scottish Islands
Introduction (Scottish Islands)
Hebrides
Northern Isles
Orkney: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc. (6820-00-50)
Shetland: Islands and Main Towns, Megalithic Monuments, etc.
05B Wales (Cambria)
Palaeolithic Period (230-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC), Neolithic monuments
Bronze Age (2500-650 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (650-00-48)
Roman Period (48-410)
Celtic Tribes of Wales, Conquest
Occupation and Settlement (78-383)
05C England
Introduction (England)
Palaeolithic Period (900-11.7 kya)
Early Humans, Doggerland
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-2500 BC)
Introduction (England)
Neolithic Monuments (05C)
Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, Bronze Age
Bronze Age (2500-800 BC)
Wessex Culture, Deverel-Rimbury Culture, Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age (800-00-43)
Introduction (England)
Ferrous Metallurgy
Celtic Tribes of England (Ptolemy)
Roman Influence
Celtic Kings
Roman Period (43-410)
Conquest of the South and East (43-48)
Conquest of the North and West (48-79)
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Introduction (England)
Hadrian’s Wall (122)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211) (e)
Gallic Empire (260-274)
Diocletian Tetrarchy (293-305)
Britannic Revolt, End of Roman Imperial Rule in Britain
Associated Islands
Channel Islands
Northern Europe (9700-00-410)
Introduction (Scandinavia)
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)
Denmark
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Neolithic Period (4000-1700 BC), Late Neolithic Period
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
Norway
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Sweden
Late Upper Palaeolithic (15-11.7 kya)
Mesolithic Period (9700-4000 BC)
Bronze Age (1700-500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-410)
Finland
Intoduction
Neolithic Period (5300-1500 BC)
Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-00-09)
Roman Period (09-400)
Northeast Europe (in preparation)
Ancient Near East
An Outline History of the Ancient Near East
Egypt (3050-00-646)
Physical Geography
prehistory (700 kya-c.3050 BC)
The Nile
Palaeolithic Period (700-7 kya)
Saharan Neolithic Period (c.8800-c.4700 BC)
Predynastic Period (c.5300-c.3050 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (c.3050-c.2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c.2686-c.2160 BC)
Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-c.1550 BC)
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
New Kingdom (c.1550-c.1069 BC)
Ramessids, Sea People
Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC)
Late Period (664-332 BC)
Graeco-Roman Period (332-395)
Macedonian Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty
Roman Period (30-00-395)
Byzantine Period, (395-646)
Mesopotamia (2900-00-637)
Prehistory (120 kya-3000 BC)
Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period
Neolithic Period, Predynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period (c.2900-c.2270 BC)
Akkad Period (c.2270-c.2083 BC)
Gutian Period, Ur III Period (c.2141-c.1940 BC)
Larsa-Isin Period (c.1940-c.1728 BC)
Old Babylonian Period (c.1830-c.1531 BC)
Assyrian Period (729-627 BC)
Achaemenid Period (539-331 BC)
Greek Period (331-129 BC)
Seleucus-I
Sassanian Period (224-637)
Assyria (2000-608 BC)
Old Assyrian Period (c.2000-c.1353 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Period (935-608 BC)
Fall of Nineveh
Asia Minor (c.9600-00-1453)
Physical Geography
Prehistory (c.9600-c.3300 BC)
Neolithic Period (c.9600-c.6000 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Introduction (Asia Minor)
Hittites (c.1600-c.1200 BC)
Mitanni (c.1500-c.1245 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-546 BC)
Nairi and Urartu (c.1260-c.580 BC)
Greek Colonization
Greek Colonisation (c.750-c.550 BC)
Greek Colonisation: Phrygia, Lycia
Greek Period (333-190 BC)
Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) and Lysimachus (79; r.305-281 BC)
Bithynia (376-74 BC)
Cappadocia (331-00-17)
Commagene (163-00-72)
Armenia (570-00-114)
Roman Period (190-00-395)
Syria (3300-00-637)
Bronze Age (c.3300-c.1200 BC)
Amorites (c.2000-c.1531 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC), Aramaeans
Roman Period (63 BC-00-395)
Phoenicia (3300-00-637)
Achaemenid Period (539-332 BC); Cyprus, Sidon
Roman Period (63-00-395)
Palestine (3300-00-638)
Bronze Age: Canaanites (c.2000-c.1200 BC)
Iron Age (c.1200-539 BC)
United Monarchy (c.1030-c.931 BC); House of Saul, House of David
Fall of Judah (586 BC)
Greek Period (333-63 BC)
Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (167-37 BC)
Nabataeans (312-00-1106)
Roman Period (63 BC-AD 395)
Herodian Dynasty (37-00-92)
Herod the Great
Peter the Fisherman, Paul of Tarsus
Constantine-I the Great (65; r.306-337)
Persia (3200-00-651)
Prehistory; Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods
Median Period (728-549 BC)
Achaemenid Period (550-330 BC)
Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC)
Sassanid Dynasty (224-651)
Byzantium
Appendices
Ancient Near East: Chronology (2500 kya-AD 1453)
Ancient Greece
An Outline History of Ancient Greece
Physical Geography
Prehistory (700 kya-c.1350 BC)
Bronze Age (c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Minoan Civilisation (Crete, c.3650-c.1100 BC)
Cycladic Civilisation (Cyclades, c.3000-c.1100 BC)
Helladic Period (Mainland, c.2800-c.1100 BC)
Troy (c.3000-1st Century BC)
Dark Age (c.1100-c.750 BC)
Dorian Greeks (c.1100-c.1000 BC)
Early Archaic Period c.750-546 BC)
Homer and Hesiod
Hesiod (c.700 BC)
Colonial Expansion
Panhellenism and Tyranny
Northern Greece
Thessaly, Epirus
Central Greece
Phocis (Delphi)
Attica (Athens)
Introduction (Ancient Greece)
Cylon, Draco, Solon
Eastern Aegean
Ionia
Chios
Miletus
Ephesus, Smyrna, Phocaea
Aeolis, Lesbos
Southern Greece
Southern Greece (=Peloponnese)
Corinthia (Corinth), Sicyon (city-state)
Laconia (Sparta)
Black Sea
Greek Cities, Sinope, Trapezus, Olbia
Southern Italy
Greek Cities: Sicily; Syracuse, Gela
Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Etruscans, Ducetius, Alliances with Athens
Late Archaic Period (546-479 BC)
Advance of Persia (546-c.511 BC)
Developments in Warfare; Chariots, Hoplites, Warships, Wall Fortification
Persian Wars (499-449 BC)
Ionian Revolt
Thermopylae and Artemisium (480 BC)
Plataea and Mycale (479 BC)
Early Classical Period (479-446 BC)
Delian League (478-454 BC)
Introduction, Delian League
Cimon (c.510-450 BC)
Pericles (c.495-429 BC)
First Peloponnesian War (c.460-446 BC)
After the Truce
Middle Classical Period (446-404 BC)
Thirty Years’ Treaty (446-431 BC)
Acarnanian Alliance (mid-430s-389 BC), Corinth-Corcyra War (435-431 BC)
Megarian Decree, Battle of Potidaea
Second (=Great) Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
Western Greeks (1/2) (c.580-446 BC)
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
Year Two (430/29 BC): Plague at Athens
Year Four (428/7 BC): Mytilene
Year Five (427/6 BC): Archidamian War (431-421 BC), Corcyra
Year Six (426/5 BC): Tanagra, Aegitium, Olpae, Idomene
Year Eight (424/3BC); Megara, Delium
Year Ten (422/1 BC): Amphipolis
Interlude (421-413 BC)
Year Fifteen (417/6 BC), Hysiae; Year Sixteen (416/5 BC), Melos
Year Nineteen (413/2 BC): Sicilian Expedition, Sea Battles in Great Harbour
Decelean (=Ionian) War (413-404 BC)
Year Twenty-One (411/0 BC): Eretria, Cynosure, Abydos
Year Twenty-Two (410/09 BC): Cyzicus
Year Twenty-Six (406/5 BC): Notium, Arginusae
Western Greeks (2/2) (367-331 BC)
Timoleon (c.77; r.343-337 BC; died c.334 BC)
Late Classical period (404-323 BC)
Second Siciliian War (410-367 BC)
Syracuse
Spartan Hegemony (404-386 BC)
Sparta’s War with Elis (402-398 BC)
Sparta’s Expeditions to Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Corinthian War (395–387 BC)
Later events (394-388 BC), Lechaeum (391 BC)
Decline of Sparta (386-371 BC)
Theban-Spartan War (378-371 BC), Tegyra
Theban Hegenomy (371-362 BC)
Shifting Alliances
Collapse of the Leading Powers, Northern Greece
Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC)
Third Sacred War (356-346 BC): Eubulus and Demosthenes
Philip in Eastern Thrace (342-340 BC); Perinthus, Byzantium
Alexander III the Great (32; r.336-323 BC)
Destruction of Thebes (September, 335 BC)
Conquest of Levant and Egypt (332 BC), Sieges of Tyre and Gaza
Defeat of Persia (331-330 BC), Battles: Uxian Defile, Persian Gates
Invasion of India (327-325 BC), Cophen Campaign, Indus Expedition
Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
Rebellion in Greece, Lamian War (323-321 BC)
Diadochian Wars (322-276 BC)
Antigonid Era (276-146 BC)
Antigonus II Gonata, Aetolian and Achaean Leagues
Philip V (59; r.221-179 BC), Social War (220-217 BC)
Philip V: Antiochus III of Syria (c.54; r.223-187 BC)
Roman Period (146-00-395)
Gaius Julius Caesar (48, r.46-44 BC), Mark Antony
Byzantine Period (395-1453)
Crusaders, Ottoman Turks
Roman Republic
An Outline History of the Roman Republic (509-27 BC)
Physical Geography
Prehistory (850 kya-2300 BC)
Palaeolithic (850-23 kya), Mesolithic (c.10-c.8 kya)
Neolithic and Chalcoithic
Bronze Age (2300-1150 BC)
Early Iron Age (c.900 BC)
Early Peoples of Italy
Villanovans, Greeks; Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Etruscans (c.800-509 BC)
Introduction (Roman Republic)
Southern Expansion, Northern Expansion
Regal Rome (c.753-509 BC)
Introduction (Roman Republic)
Traditional Story
Etruscan Kings of Rome (616-509 BC)
Chronology
Early Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
Society [1/2]
Religion, Plebeians
Government [1/3]
Assemblies
Magistrates
Conflict of the Orders (485-287 BC)
Cessations of the Plebeians (494, 449, 445, 342, 287 BC)
Roman Conquest of Italy (505-264 BC)
Rome and her Neighbours (505-338 BC)
Sabines, Triple Alliance
Volsci and the Aequi
Gallic Invasion of Rome (390/387 BC)
Roman Expansion (389-349 BC)
Aequi, Volsci
Etruscans, Latins and Hernici
Samnite and Latin Wars (343-290 BC)
First Samnite War
Second (=Great) Samnite War
Third Samnite War
Gauls (284-283 BC) [2/2]
Conquest of Southern Italy (280-264 BC)
Pyrrhic War
Roads and Aqueducts
Chronology (509-264 BC)
Middle Roman Republic (264-133 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (264-257 BC)
North Africa (256-255 BC)
Return to Sicily (254-241 BC)
Between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-218 BC)
Sardina
Illyria, First and Second wars with Rome
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
Preliminaries
Hannibal in Northern and Central Italy (218-217 BC)
Hannibal in Southern Italy (217-215 BC) [1/2]
Revolt of Syracuse (214-211 BC)
War in Spain (211-206 BC) [3/7]
War in Africa (204-202 BC)
Northern Border (201-146 BC)
Gallia Cisalpina (201-183 BC) [2/2]
Eastern Mediterranean (204-146 BC)
Second Macedonian War (200-196 BC)
Third Macedonian War, Fourth Macedonian War
Western Mediterranean (206-146 BC)
War in Spain (206-138 BC) [4/7]
War in Spain [4/7]: Lusitanian War (155-139 BC)
Carthage (196-146 BC)
Third Punic War (149-146 BC)
Late Roman Republic (133-27 BC)
Society [3/4]
Gracchan Reforms (133-121 BC)
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (31; fl.123-121 BC)
Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC
Introduction (Gaius Marius)
Jugurthine War (112-106 BC)
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus
Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC)
Introduction, Drusus
Italian, Social (Socii: ‘allies’) or Marsic War (90-88 BC)
Sulla’s capture of Rome (88 BC)
Second Mithridatic War (83-82 BC)
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (=Pompey; 58; fl.82-48 BC)
Lepidus (43; fl.78-77 BC)
Macedonia (97-62 BC)
Lucullus (61; fl.89-57 BC)
Pompey the Great
Gaius Julius Caesar (=Caesar; 56; fl.85-44 BC)
Introduction (Julius Caesar)
Publius Clodius Pulcher (41; fl.68-52 BC)
Caesar’s Reduction of Gaul (58-56 BC)
Helvetii
Nervii (Belgica), Sabis River (Boduognatus)
Third Gallic Revolt (52-51 BC)
Arverni [2/2], Bituriges [2/2], Carnutes [2/2]
Andes/Andecavi (northwest Celtica), Carduci
Gaius Octavius (76; fl.47-00-14)
Appendices
Carthaginian Leaders (North Africa)
Prehistory, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age: Chronology (850 kya-770 BC)
Roman Family Names
Cornelius (61)
Aurelius (28)
Claudius (46)
Flavius (81)
Julius (49)
Roman Empire
An Outline History of the Roman Empire
Early Roman Empire (27-00-193)
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27-00-68)
Augustus (76; r.27.01-00-14.08)
Cantabrian Wars (27-19 BC)
Second Settlement of Augustus (23 BC)
Succession, Reforms
Western Provinces and Frontiers (25-00-09)
Tiberius (78; r.14.09-37.03)
Caligula (28; r.37.03-41.01)
Claudius-I (64; r.41-54)
Nero (30; r.54.10-68.06)
Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD)
Galba, Otho
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
Vespasian (69; r.69-79)
Domitian (44; r.81-96)
Nervan-Antonine Dynasty (96-193)
Nerva (67; r.96-98)
Trajan (63; r.98-117)
Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161)
Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180)
Commodus (31; r.177-192)
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
Middle Roman Empire (193-284)
Severan Dynasty (193-211)
Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211)
Fulvius Plautianus, Britain
Military Anarchy (235-284)
28-32 Maximinus-I Thrax, Gordian-I, Gordian II, Balbinus, Pupienus [235-238]
Maximinus’ Civil War (238) [2/12]
Philip-I The Arab, Philip II
Gallienus, Saloninus
Claudius II Gothicus (64; r.41-54)
Aurelian
Decius, Herennius Etruscus
Late Roman Empire (284-476)
Diocletian, Maximian
Constantinian Dynasty (305-364)
Tetrarchic Wars (306-324)
Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II
Valentinian-Theodosian Dynasty (364-455)
Valens, Valentinian II
Interregnum (392–425)
Honorus
Theodosius II
Constantine III, Constans II, Constantius III
Valentinian III
Restoration (425-455)
Marcian (450-457)
Non-dynastic (455-476) (W) and the Leonid Dynasty (455-518) (E)
Avitus (W)
Libius Severus, Anthemius
Olybrius, Glycerius, Leo II, Zeno [1/2], Julius Nepos, Romulus Augustulus, Basiliscus, Zeno [2/2]
Appendices
Chronology: Roman Empire
Roman Emperors (27-00-476)
Roman Usurpers (41-00-486)
Category:
Middle Kingdom (c.2055-c.1650 BC)
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