Ancient Rome could never be fed entirely from its own countryside. Countries that sent grain to Rome gained great strategic importance, as did the shipping lanes on which it travelled. Whoever controlled the grain supply controlled Rome.
Augustus therefore made Egypt (Aegyptus) his personal province administered by equestrian prefects. The first prefect Cornelius Gallus (c.43; r.29-26 BC) brought Egypt under control and advanced to the first cataract. His successor, Aelius Gallus (r.26-24 BC), went on an ill-fated expedition to conquer Arabia Felix (the southernmost part of the Arabian Peninsula). In 24 BC Merotic Kushites attacked and occupied Aswan. Aelius’ successor, Gaius Petronius (c.55; r.24-20 BC), drove them back and captured the fortress of Qasr Ibrim beyond the first cataract. When the Kushites attacked again terms were agreed and the Romans withdrew.
Jews had always been present in Alexandria in large numbers. A section of the city was assigned to them so they could observe their laws without the distraction of continual contact with the pagan population. Conflicts between the Jews and pagans were mainly due to their deep antipathy towards each other. Strained relations between the two races also existed in other cities but in Alexandria the situation was particularly acute because the Jews were a powerful element in the city.
Caligula (28; r.37-41) did not trust the prefect Aulus Avilius Flaccus (r.32-38; d.39) so in 38 he sent Agrippa-I (54; r.41-44) to check on him. The visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as king of the Jews. Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in the synagogues. Because of their religious beliefs the Jews had asked to be excluded from emperor worship so this provoked riots in the city. Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him.
In 66 during the reign of Nero (30; r.54-68) the Jews in Alexandria rebelled against Rome. The prefect Tiberius Julius Alexander (r.66-69) deployed his legions and the revolt was quelled but only after much shedding of blood. In 116 when Trajan (63; r.98-117) was attacking the Parthian Empire, large sections of the Jewish population in the empire began to rebel against the Romans. Trajan sent his general Quintus Marcius Turbo west to quell the rebellion and re-establish control of Rome’s grain supply.
The governor of Syria Gaius Avidius Cassius (c.45; r.175) suppressed a revolt of the Bucoli, herdsmen from the Delta region, that had broken out in 172. In 175 he was proclaimed emperor after the premature news of the death of Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180). For three months Cassius controlled Egypt and many of the eastern provinces but he failed to gain widespread support and was murdered by a centurion. A similar revolt broke out in 193 when Pescennius Niger (65; r.193-194), another governor of Syria, was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax (66; r.192-193).
In 215 Caracalla (29; r.211-217), fearing a revolt in Egypt and annoyed at the Alexandrians referring to himself and his mother as Oedipus and Jocasta, visited the city and reputedly ordered Roman citizenship to be granted to all communities inside the empire; his motive was in fact to obtain increased revenue from the inheritance tax.. His financial difficulties also brought about inflation.
In 250 Decius (c.50; r.249-251) issued an edict for the suppression of Christianity. Decius’ persecution of the Christians resulted from the belief that the restoration of state cults was essential to the preservation of the empire.
The prefect Lucius Mussius Aemilianus (r.259-261) supported the Macriani, a family of usurpers. When their revolt broke down, Mussius himself seems to have been proclaimed emperor in Egypt. Gallienus (c.50; r.253-268) sent troops under the command of Aurelius Theodotus who overthrew and captured Mussius.
Zenobia (c.34; r.267-274), queen of the Palmyrene Empire, conquered Egypt (269) and expelled the Roman prefect Tenagino Probus. She ruled over Egypt until 274 when she was defeated and taken as a hostage to Aurelian (c.60; r.270-275). Zenobia is said to have appeared in golden chains in Aurelian’s military triumph in Rome.
In the first century AD the nomadic Blemmyes began to settle in Lower Nubia along the border with Rome. In 279/280 the Blemmyes captured the cities of Ptolemais and Coptos, but Probus (c.50; r.276-282) sent his generals and the rebellion was crushed. In 298 Diocletian (64; r.284-305) went to Egypt to resolve a crisis after the revolt by Domitianus (r.297). It seems that at this time peace was made with the Blemmyes and the Roman frontier withdrawn to Philae.
With his edict of 303 Diocletian began the last and most severe persecution of the Christians. Hermits such as Saint Anthony (c.251-356) took to the desert. Eventually, individuals came together in loosely-knit groups and then in c.320 the first coenobitic community was established at Tabennisi by Saint Pachomius (c.292-348).
With the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine-I (65; r.307-337) ended the persecution of Christians. Alexandria, one of the three dominant churches in the empire, along with Rome itself and Antioch, became a centre of Christian theology.
Constantine called the Council of Nicaea in 325 to settle a dispute between the Bishop of Alexandria and the theologian Arius (c.250-336). The council affirmed what has become the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and declared Arianism to be a dangerous heresy.
Theodosius-I (48; r.379-395) made his elder son Arcadius (30/1; r.395-408) co-ruler for the East (383), and his other son Honorius (38; r.395-423) co-ruler in the West (393). When Theodosius died, Honorius and Arcadius divided the empire.
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