Macedonian Dynasty (332-305 BC)
Alexander was welcomed in Egypt as the liberator from the deeply resented rule of Persia. He founded Alexandria in the northwest Delta. When he left Egypt in 331 BC he placed Cleomenes of Naucratis (d.322 BC) in charge of the country. When Alexander died there was no obvious or legitimate heir. It was eventually agreed that Alexander’s half-brother Philip III (c.42; r.323-317 BC) and his posthumous son Alexander IV (13; r.317-310 BC) should rule jointly – albeit in name only. Satrapies were given to Ptolemy-I (c.84; r.305-283 BC) in Egypt; Seleucus-I (c.77; r.305-281 BC) in Babylon; and Antigonus-I (c.81; r.306-301 BC) in Asia Minor, with his son Demetrius-I (54; r.294-288 BC; d.283 BC). When Alexander IV died, the successors began to call themselves kings. Ptolemy waited five more years before he called himself king.
Ptolemaic Dynasty, (305-30 BC)
Ptolemy and his successors introduced the Hellenic culture to Egypt and large numbers of Greeks came to settle there. The old Egyptian aristocracy disappeared and the Greeks in Egypt formed the new upper class. Although the kingdom became wealthy the native Egyptians enjoyed few benefits and there were frequent rebellions.
The Ptolemies sought to protect the approaches to Egypt by holding Palestine to the east and Cyrene to the west, with the sea approach from the north defended by Cyprus and a number of coastal points in Asia Minor. Around 310 BC Ptolemy made an alliance with the island city of Rhodes.
Ptolemy repelled an invasion of Egypt by Demetrius at the Battle of Gaza in 312 BC. Demetrius defeated Ptolemy’s governor of Cyprus in a naval battle off Salamis in 306 BC and annexed the island. Following the death of Antigonus in 301 BC Ptolemy took most of Palestine together with parts of Cilicia and Pisidia. His seizure of Palestine led to the Syrian wars. There was also a rivalry between Egypt and Macedonia, largely for the acquisition of naval power in the Aegean and control of the islands through the Nesiote League.
In the First Syrian War (274-271 BC) Ptolemy II (62; r.285-246 BC) invaded Syria and defeated Antiochus-I (r.281-261 BC). He supported Athens in an anti-Macedonian alliance proposed by Chremonides (fl.270-240 BC) and fought the indecisive Second Syrian War (c.260-253 BC).
The marriage of Ptolemy III (c.59; r.246-221 BC) to Berenice II (c.273-221 BC) united Egypt and Cyrene. In the Third Syrian War (246-241 BC) he invaded Syria but was forced to make peace with Seleucus II (c.40; r.246-225 BC). He intervened in Greece to counter Macedonian influence, allying first with Aratus of Sicyon (271-213 BC) and later with Cleomenes III of Sparta (c.41; r.235-222 BC).
In the Fourth Syrian War (221-217 BC) Antiochus III (c.54; r.223-187 BC) invaded Palestine but Ptolemy IV (c.39; r.221-205 BC) defeated him at the Battle of Raphia in 217 BC. Internal revolts and the secession of Upper Egypt followed.
Encouraged by the succession of the young Ptolemy V (c.30; r.210-180 BC), Philip V of Macedon (59; r.221-179 BC) and Antiochus III plotted to divide Egypt. In the Fifth Syrian War (202-195 BC) Antiochus invaded Syria despite Roman disapproval. Ptolemy concluded peace and married Antiochus’ daughter. Although his reign saw the loss of territory in Asia Minor, the Aegean and Palestine (200 BC), Upper and Lower Egypt were reunited and native revolts quelled.
After the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC) against Antiochus IV (c.51; r.175-163 BC), Ptolemy VI (c.41; r.180*145 BC) ruled jointly with his brother Ptolemy VIII (c.66; r.170*116 BC). In 164 BC Ptolemy VI was deposed by Ptolemy VIII but reinstated by Rome. When Ptolemy VI was killed in a victorious battle against the Seleucid pretender Alexander-I Balas (r.150-145 BC), his young son Ptolemy VII (c.18; r.145-144 BC) was murdered by Ptolemy VIII who then ruled to 116 BC.
His sons Ptolemy IX (c.69; r.116*80 BC) and Ptolemy X (c.52; r.110-88 BC) contested the throne while meddling in the Seleucid dynastic struggles between Antiochus VIII (r.125-96 BC) and Antiochus IX (r.114-96 BC). In 107 BC Ptolemy IX became the independent king in Cyprus, but returned in 88 BC, defeated his brother and ruled until his death in 80 BC.
The murder of Ptolemy XI (c.19; r.80 BC) by the Alexandrians ended the legitimate Ptolemaic line. Ptolemy XII (c.57; r.80*51 BC) succeeded as an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX. His friendly relations with Rome led to his expulsion by the Alexandrians in 58, but Rome restored him to his throne.
Cleopatra VII (39; r.51-30 BC), daughter of Ptolemy XII, became joint ruler with her brother Ptolemy XIII (c.16; r.51-47 BC) who then expelled her. Pursued by Caesar (100-44 BC), the defeated Pompey (106-48 BC) fled to Egypt where he was killed by Ptolemy’s men. Caesar then supported Cleopatra against her brother in the Alexandrian War in which Ptolemy was killed. Cleopatra married her other brother Ptolemy XIV (c.15; r.47-44 BC) and Caesar departed. After the birth of her (and allegedly Caesar’s) son Ptolemy XV (17; r.44-30 BC), Ptolemy XIV died, supposedly poisoned, and Cleopatra declared her son joint ruler.
After the death of Caesar, Octavian (=Augustus; 76; r.31-00-14) took the western section of the empire and Mark Antony (c.83-30 BC) took the east. Antony summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus, and their permanent alliance led to Cleopatra’s involvement in Antony’s civil war against Octavian. She and Antony were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. They fled to Alexandria and when Octavian entered the city on 1 August 30 BC the couple committed suicide.
Octavian had Ptolemy XIV put to death immediately but Cleopatra’s children by Antony carried on the succession, ruling nominally for eighteen days before on 31 August 30 BC Egypt became a Roman province and lost its independence.
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