In the spring of 336 BC Philip II of Macedon (46; r.359-336 BC) sent 10,000 troops under his general Parmenion (c.400-330 BC) to Asia Minor to secure a bridgehead for his major invasion force. The Macedonians took Cyzicus – dangerously close to Dascylium, the capital of the Persian satrapy Hellespontine Phrygia (Troad, Mysia, Bithynia) – but on pushing south they were checked by the Greek mercenary Memnon of Rhodes (c.380-333 BC) at Magnesia on the Meander.
In spring 334 BC Alexander III of Macedon (32; r.336-323 BC) crossed the Hellespont with an army of 40,000. He went first to Troy where he sacrificed to Athena and to the Greek heroes of war, then returned to his army and moved eastwards. The Persian satraps met at Zeleia and decided, despite the advice of Memnon who advocated a ‘scorched earth’ policy, to confront the invader at the Granicus River.
Plutarch (c.46-120), Arrian (c.86-160) and Diodorus (c.90- 21 BC) all mention the battle. The Persians placed their cavalry on top of the east bank with the infantry behind. The Macedonians had their heavy infantry in the middle with cavalry on either side. The battle started with a cavalry and light infantry attack from the Macedonian left, so the Persians heavily reinforced that side. At this point Alexander led his cavalry (the Companions) in their classic wedge-shape charge and smashed through the Persian centre. The Macedonian infantry charged through the gap to engage the Persian infantry beyond. At this, the Persian cavalry retreated, and the infantry was cut down as it fled.
Alexander took possession of Dascylium, abandoned by its garrison, and then entered Sardis, surrendered by the garrison commander Mithrenes without a fight. Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles and many other coastal cities followed. Miletus offered resistance and was put under siege. The Persian fleet arrived, but was prevented by the Macedonian fleet from making a landing and Miletus fell.
Memnon and his supporters retreated south to the strongly fortified city Halicarnassus, now governed by the Persian satrap Orontobates. When Alexander arrived at Halicarnassus he had the ditch filled to allow his siege equipment to approach the walls. When two towers and the intervening wall were battered down, the defenders built another wall in the form of a crescent behind it before advantage could be taken of the breach. Two attempts were made to destroy the engines brought up to attack this new wall and when the second attempt failed with great loss, Memnon and Orontobates decided to escape to Cos. Alexander entered the city, committed the province to Ada, and left her with a small force to reduce the remaining strongholds.
Winter was drawing on and Alexander ordered Parmenion to proceed with the greater part of the cavalry and baggage to Sardis and thence to Phrygia. Alexander himself was to move along the coast of Lycia and Pamphylia with the intention of rejoining Permenion in the spring. On his entering Lycia, the cities of Telmessus, Pinara, Xanthus and Patara submitted. By midwinter he was in Phaselis. From here he sent the main body of his army over Mount Climax on a road constructed by his Thracian pioneers, while he with a small escort went along the shore.
Alexander advanced through Perge, Aspendus and along the coast to Side. This was the end of Alexander’s foray along the southern coast. From Side to Cilicia stretched a rugged region without harbours or adequate land communication. Alexander returned to Perge and began his march towards Phrygia, but this took him through Pisidia. Judging that Termessus was too strong to be taken, Alexander stormed Sagalassus and this success was followed by the submission of most of the smaller towns. The way was now clear for the army to move via Celaenae to Gordium, where he rejoined Permenion. The story of Alexander’s severing of the Gordian Knot is told at some length by both Plutarch and Arrian.
Alexander now resumed his march eastward. The Paphlagonians offered their obedience and were assigned to the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, and the Cappadocians gave their allegiance too. Alexander proceeded to the Cilician Gates, the only usable pass through the Taurus Mountains separating Asia Minor from Syria and Mesopotamia.
Alexander entered Tarsus and apparently was almost immediately infected by pernicious malaria, which incapacitated him for more than two months. He had almost recovered from his illness when he heard that the Persians were within a five days’ march of Cilicia. Parmenion, with almost a quarter of the army, was sent to picket the passes leading into Cilicia. Alexander himself did not march against the Persians but instead went into western Cilicia, where he subdued Soli and overcame the mountain tribes of the region.
Alexander returned to Tarsus and went on to Magarsus and Mallus. Hearing that the Persians were at Sochoi in Syria, he left his sick and wounded at Issus in Cilicia and marched south to Myriandrus (south of Iskenderun). Meanwhile, Darius III (c.50; r.336-330 BC) had marched nearly parallel but northwards in the opposite direction on the eastern side of the Amanus Mountains, captured Issus and then moved south to take up a position on the north bank of the Pinarus (=Payas?) River. Alexander now had to retrace his steps.
The Persian forces on the river bank were uncomfortably compressed. Cavalry were near the sea; mercenary infantry occupied the centre; while the Persian national infantry continued the line into the foothills of the Amanus. The rest of the army was massed in depth to the rear of the line.
At dawn the Macedonian army moved down to the plain, the infantry first and then the cavalry. As the afternoon began, the Macedonian line closed on the Persians. Alexander had his infantry in the centre, the Thessalian and allied cavalry near the sea, and Macedonian cavalry to the mountains. At missile range Alexander’s cavalry drove forward, pushing towards the left where Darius was stationed. The cohesion of Alexander’s infantry broke down while forcing the river and was in some danger. Eventually, however, Darius had to take flight to avoid capture. Morale fell and the whole of Darius’s left began to retreat, while Alexander pressed to his left to assist the infantry. The infantry regained its alignment and drove the mercenaries from the stream. The Thessalian cavalry led by Parmenion now attacked and the rout began.
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