After their defeat the cities of Ionia were ruled by tyrants nominated by a Persian satrap in Sardis. Persian rule (in the absence of resistance) was moderate, but the Greeks had to pay tribute and contribute ships, soldiers and craftsmen to Persian wars and other projects.
Miletus was the most important Ionian city. It received favourable terms from the Persians, and was a major naval and commercial power. Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus, had won favour with Darius-I (c.64; r.522-486 BC) by his loyalty during an abortive Scythian expedition; his reward, land at Myrcinus in Thrace, was challenged by the Persian general Megabazus and Histiacus had to go to Susa. During Histiaeus’ absence, his cousin Aristagoras was left as regent of Miletus.
About 502 BC Aristagoras promoted an abortive expedition, with Persian support, against Naxos, the largest and most prosperous of the Cycladic Islands. Fear of the consequences of his failure led Aristagoras to think of inciting a revolt against Persian rule. At this time Aristagoras received a message from Histiaeus, urging him to take this very step.
In 499 BC Aristagoras declared a democracy in Miletus. He then seized the Ionian fleet and set about deposing Persia’s friends throughout the region. The Ionians sought aid from their kinsmen in Greece, especially Athens and Sparta. The Spartans refused, upon learning of the great distances involved, but the Athenians were more sympathetic. The latter city sent a force in 498 BC that descended on Sardis and set fire to part of the city. Artaphrenes quickly mustered his Persian forces and caught up with the retreating Greeks at Ephesus. The Greeks offered battle in front of the city walls but were defeated. The Athenians then abandoned the Ionians and returned home. Despite this setback, Byzantium and nearby cities, most of Caria and Cyprus overthrew their Persian garrisons and joined the revolt. In Cyprus, only the city of Amathus on the southern coast remained loyal to Persia.
In 497 BC Cyprus was retaken by a large Persian army using a fleet supplied by the subject Phoenicians. In the same year Darius sent three armies to regain the Hellespontine region and Caria, but the army under the command of Daurises was ambushed by the Carians and completely destroyed. Although his other officers had greater success in the north, this setback delayed Darius’ direct attack on Miletus until 494 BC. By this time Aristagoras had been driven out of Miletus by his political rivals. He fled to the north Aegean coast where he was killed by the native Thracians.
The Persian armies throughout Ionia, Mysia and Caria then combined to march against Miletus. Seeking to destroy the Persians at sea, the Greeks assembled a large fleet (353 warships), but it was little more than half the size of the Persian fleet. The Greek side was divided by jealousies and mistrust; the Persians offered inducements for quick surrender. When the Greeks rowed out to fight the Battle of Lade, off Samos, forty-nine Samian warships hoisted sail and fled. Most of the other Greek ships followed, leaving only the Chians and Milesians to fight and lose. Without a major naval force to defend it, Miletus was vulnerable to assault. The Persians forced their way into the city with tunnels and battering rams. The rest of the cities and islands were gradually reduced to submission and punished for their revolt.
The Persians eventually returned to their usual leniency. They reduced the cities’ tribute and replaced the old system of tyrant puppets with democratic governments. But Ionia ceased to exist as a cultural or a mercantile power. It was because of this revolt that the Persians first became aware of Athens and conceived the idea of a conquest of mainland Greece. Although the Greeks were able to keep the Persians out of Europe with their victories at Marathon (490 BC), Salamis (480 BC) and Plataea (479 BC), they were unable to unite for an attack on the Achaemenid Empire.
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