In 122 the Roman emperor Hadrian (62; r.117-38) decided to build a great barrier, Hadrian’s Wall, across the Solway-Tyne isthmus. It was a stone rampart (the western section was originally built of turf and later rebuilt in stone) on a stone base and included milecastles with two turrets inbetween them; and a fort about every five miles (8 kilometres). From north to south it comprised a ditch, curtain wall, military way (road) and a vallum (a ditch with a mound on both sides). It extended some seventy-three miles (117 kilometres) across northern England.
The Lowland tribes were left in peace until 139 when the Quintus 02Lollius Urbicus (fl.135-160), governor of Britain (139-142) led an army north of the wall and reoccupied the Lowlands; the hostile elements of the Selgovae and possibly the Novantae simply retreated further north.
In 142 the emperor Antoninus Pius (74; r.138-161) ordered the construction of a new wall, the Antonine Wall, to be built across the Clyde-Forth isthmus. It was a turf fortification on a stone base. It included sixteen forts with small fortlets inbetween them. From north to south it comprised a mound, ditch, berm (level space between a wall and ditch), curtain wall and a military way. It stretched thirty-nine miles (63 km) across the ‘waist of Scotland’ at the Central Lowlands.
There was insufficient manpower to keep both walls in commission. At Hadrian’s Wall the army abandoned most of the forts, removed milecastle gates, filled the vallum ditch and the gaps made through its mounds at regular intervals.
Although the Antonine Wall in the north was much shorter than Hadrian’s Wall, it had a significant disadvantage. Roman expansion required that those living beyond the frontier to be responsive to threats and inducement, and those living within the frontier should accept Romanization. The people on both sides of the Antonine Wall fulfilled none of these conditions so the rear of the wall was never fully pacified and its front remained unsecured.
There is evidence of revolt around 155 to 158 in the area northwest of Hadrian’s Wall. It is possible that the Brigantes and maybe some of the other tribes living south of Hadrian’s Wall were also involved. Troops from the Antonine Wall confronted the rebels and reinforcements under 29Julius Verus (fl.132-163), governor of Britain (154-158), squashed the rebellion in 158. It is possible that this revolt prompted the decision to reoccupy Hadrian’s Wall, but an increasing demand for troop transfers from Britain to deal with events in mainland Europe would have been the major consideration.
Not actually on the line of Hadrian’s Wall, the Roman fort of Arbeia at South Shields on the right (south bank) of the Tyne Estuary was built in 160. It was later converted into a maritime supply fort for Hadrian’s Wall housing twenty-two granaries that could hold enough grain to supply more than forty thousand men for three months.
Antonius Pius died and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius (58; r.161-180). Marcus sent Statius Priscus, Statius Priscus (fl.132-162), governor, (rc.161-c.162), but he was soon recalled to deal with a crisis on the eastern frontier.
He was replaced by Calpurnius (19) Agricola (fl.158-169), governor of Britain (c.163-c.166), who probably oversaw final abandonment of the Antonine Wall and the re-commissioning of Hadrian’s Wall around 163.
Experience had shown that the wall as a physical barrier did not preclude the need for a military presence on both sides of it. North of the wall from west to east there were Roman outpost forts at Birrens (Blatobulgium) in Dumfries and Galloway; Netherby (Exploratorum) and Bewcastle (Fanum Cocidi) in Cumbria; Risingham (Habitancum) and High Rochester (Bremenium) in Northumberland; and Cappuck and Newstead (Trimontium) in Scottish Borders.
The Roman historian 08Cassius Dio (c.156-c.235) records that c.180, tribes from the north breached Hadrian’s Wall and killed a general and all his guards, presumably during an inspection of the wall. The governor 03Ulpius Marcellus (fl.176-185), governor (c.178-c.184), gained victory by 184, but abandoned the forts at Birrens and Newstead (and probably Cappuck), while upgrading those at Risingham and High Rochester. He probably concluded treaties with a few of the tribes but the unrest and fighting continued into later years. By the end of the second century tribes north of the Antonine Wall had coalesced into two main groups, the Caledonii and the Maeatae, the latter living close to the Antonine Wall
In 193 the emperor Pertinax (66; r.193) was assassinated and 04Clodius Septimius Albinus (c.47; fl. 175-197), governor (c.191-c.197), took a substantial part of his forces to the continent to contest the succession.
Cassius Dio implies that after this weakening of the Roman forces in Britain, the Maeatae came south to plunder and destroy. After defeating Albinus at the Battle of Lugdunum in 197, the emperor Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211) sent Virius Lupus (c.45; fl.196-205+), governor of Britain (197-c.200), to restore order, but with insufficient forces he had to buy peace. Constant resistance meant Virius and his successors Valerius (20a) Pudens (fl.193-212), governor (c.202-c.205), and Alfenus Senecio (fl.196-207), governor c.205-c.207), were fully occupied repairing several forts in the north and it was not until 207 before work commenced on the wall itself.
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