| Battle: Turda | Minucius (6)/Turboletae | 196 |
| Battle: Calagurris | Celtiberi/Manlius (11) | 188 |
| Battle: Hasta | Gaius Atinius/Lusitani | 188 |
| Battle: Toletum | Carpetani/Quinctius (9)+Calpurnius (3) | 186 |
| Battle: Tagus River | Quinctius (9)+Calpurnius (3)/Celtiberi | 186 |
| Battle: Tagus River | Mummius/Caesarus | 153 |
| Battle: Mauretania | Mummies/Lusitanians | 153 |
| Battle: Tribola | Viriathus/Gaius Vetilius | 147 |
| Battle: Toledo | Viriathus/Gaius Plautius | 146 |
| Battle: Sierra Morena | Viriathus/Fabius (12) | 141 |
During the Second Punic War the Roman conquests in Spain removed it as a base for the Carthaginians to attack Italy. After the war it was essential to prevent Carthage regaining a foothold in Spain so the Senate decided to provide a permanent force, almost exclusively Roman because experience had shown that the Iberian chieftains could not be trusted.
In 206 BC when 16Cornelius Scipio and Silanus returned to Italy, 19Cornelius Lentulus (fl.211-173 BC) and 08Manlius Acidinus (fl.210-199 BC) were given consular imperium and sent to govern the Roman conquests in Spain.
The two Ilergetian chiefs, Indibilis and Mandonius believed that the departure of Scipio, the only Roman general they respected, was an opportunity to rebel again. In 205 BC, joining with the Ausetani and other tribes in northeast Spain, they assembled thirty thousand foot and four thousand horse and attacked their east coast neighbours, the Edetani. In a battle with the Romans the Spaniards were all but totally destroyed. Indibilis was killed during the battle; Mandonius escaped but was later given up by his tribesmen and killed by the Romans.
From 199 to 198 BC Roman Spain was governed by Gnaeus 21Cornelius Blasio and Lucius Stertinius. Included in Rome’s possessions in Spain were the silver mines near New Carthage, silver and gold mines in the Sierra Morena, and copper mines at the Rio Tinto. When Stertinius returned to Rome he deposited fifty thousand Roman pounds weight (≈16 tonnes) of silver in the treasury.
In 197 BC the Romans split their part of Hispania into two provinces: Hispania Citerior (=Hither or Nearer Spain), i.e. nearer to Rome), comprising the lower Ebro Valley and the east coast south of New Carthage; and Hispania Ulterior (=Thither or Further Spain, i.e. further from Rome), consisting of the Baetis Valley south of the Sierra Morena. Two new praetors were sent to govern the new provinces: 07Sempronius Tuditanus (Citerior) and Marcus Helvius (1) (Ulterior).
Rising discontent over an increasingly heavy financial burden sparked trouble in Turdetania (central south coast), led by Culcas and Luxinio, and quickly spread to the tribes of central and northeastern Spain. The praetors went on campaign and had some success. Later in the year Helvius sent a letter to the Senate reporting that the Malacini and Sexetani from the south coast and several other southern tribes had joined in the revolt. At the end of the year another letter arrived in Rome stating that the governor Sempronius had been defeated and mortally wounded in a battle against the rebels.
In 196 BC two new praetors were elected: 06Minucius Thermus (Citerior) (fl.202-188 BC) and 10Fabius Buteo (Ulterior). When they arrived in Hispania, Minucius immediately went into action against Budar and Baesadines, two chiefs of the Turboletae tribe (central-east). He defeated the Iberian chiefs in a battle at Turda (central-east), where twelve thousand warriors were killed and Budar made prisoner.
In 195 BC the consul 02Porcius Cato was given command over Publius Manlius (9) (Citerior) and 12Claudius Nero (Ulterior). Cato with two legions, fifteen thousand Latin allies, eight hundred cavalry and twenty warships sailed from Portus Lunae, north of Pisa, eliminated the Iberian stronghold at the Greek colony of Rhode (=Roses) on the northeast border of Spain, and set up several camps outside Emporion.
He began by gathering intelligence on the enemy’s strength and position as well as conducting raids into the countryside to provide food for his troops. Satisfied with the success of these raids, he dismissed the contractors who were hoping to supply his army with food, saying that the campaign would feed itself. When Ilergetian envoys arrived and asked for assistance to resist the rebels, Cato promised to help. After the ambassadors had departed, he disembarked his troops and, wanting his army intact for the coming major clash, marched them into winter quarters three miles (5 km) from Emporion, relying on the rumours of the Roman approach to deter the rebels and ensure the Ilergetes’ loyalty.
Cato normally marched his forces at night, probably to conceal his movements. On one such night he came to a camp of the enemy, probably the Indigetae (northeast corner). At daybreak the Roman cavalry went into the action, but the right wing was repulsed and created alarm in the Roman infantry moving towards the enemy. Cato evened the battle by sending a small force to threaten the enemy rear. After hard hand-to-hand fighting, the Iberians were forced back to their camp and Cato sent in his second legion to storm their fortifications.
Following his victory, Cato marched south towards Tarraco, and to any town that did not surrender, he sent a message demanding that its walls be dismantled that very day or be conquered and enslaved. Most of them hastily obeyed the order; the few resisting towns were captured individually.
Learning that Cato was moving south, seven fortified cities belonging to the Bergistani (northeast) decided to revolt. It was quickly suppressed, but no sooner had Cato returned to Tarraco these people revolted again and were subdued again; this time, to discourage repetition of the revolt, Cato sold a large number of them into slavery.
Cato continued southwards to assist Manlius (9) in Hispania Ulterior (possibly, Claudius (12) had left Ulterior to fulfil another assignment). The combined Roman forces defeated the Turdetanians (south coast), and Cato concluded the season’s campaigning by attacking towns of Segontia and Numantia (central-north), although he was not technically at war with the Celtiberians (central-northeast). The following spring Cato marched up the Ebro Valley and defeated a tribe called the Lacetani (northeast).
In 194 BC two new praetors were sent to Spain, Sextus Digitius (Citerior) and 23Cornelius Scipio Nasica (Ulterior). Because of Cato’s ruthless campaign these two men had to deal with rebellions that began to erupt over the country especially by the Celtiberians and Lusitanians.
During the first few months of the new governorship a large-scale rebellion broke out and Digitius was defeated. According to Livy, the situation was only saved by Nasica, who near Ilipa (central-southwest) attacked and defeated a large army of Lusitanians (central-west) on their way home with their booty after plundering southern Spain.
In 193 BC 10Fulvius Nobilior (Ulterior) crushed the Carpetani (central), Vaccaei (central-NW) and Celtiberi (central-NE) at Toledo (central). His colleague, Flaminius (2) (Citerior) (fl.196-187 BC) crossed to Ulterior and captured Inlucia, the main town of the Oretani (central-south).
The following year these two praetors faced the same tribes again. Flaminius captured the strongly fortified city of Licabrum and took as prisoner its chieftain, Corribilo. Meanwhile, Nobilior fought two successful actions against the Oretani and captured their fortified towns of Vescelia (=Vilches) and Helo. He also seized two major Carpetani towns, Noliba and Cusibis, and after defeating the Vettones (central-west) in battle took their city of Toletum (=Toledo).
In 191 BC 11Aemilius Paulus (Ulterior) was unsuccessful in his campaigns against the Lusitanians and Bastetani, but he reorganised his legions and defeated the two tribes the following year. Before leaving in Spain in 189 BC he issued a proclamation freeing the serfs of Hasta (near Gades). Flaminius (2) stayed on as governor of Citerior until 188 BC but nothing is known of what he did.
In 188 BC the arrival of 11Manlius Acidinus (Citerior) and Gaius Atinius (Ulterior) was initially peaceful, but by the following year the Celtiberians and Lusitanians were active again, ravaging the lands of tribes friendly to Rome. Meanwhile, after fighting an indecisive battle with Acidinus, the Celtiberians attacked the Romans near the town of Calagurris (=Calahorra; central-north) and suffered a crushing defeat. Late in 187 BC Atinius fought a pitched battle with the Lusitanians near Hasta. He defeated the enemy and captured the city, but died after being struck by an arrow.
In 186 BC 09Quinctius Crispinus (Citerior) and 03Calpurnius Piso (Ulterior) crossed the eastern part of the Baetis Valley towards the Carpetani (central). A battle that began not far from Dipo (=Elvas; central-west) was followed by a fight between foraging parties at Toletum (central) that quickly drew the whole of the two armies out into battle. The Romans were routed and withdrew their regions during the night.
To recuperate their losses the two praetors gathered Iberian mercenaries and auxiliary troops from friendly cities. The troops having regained their morale, the praetors marched to the Meseta Central (central plateau) and encamped at a place twelve miles (19 km) from the Tagus River. Seeing an enemy hilltop fort on the other side, the praetors split the army and crossed the river at two places where it was fordable.
The praetors immediately drew up their line of battle on an open plain with the cavalry on the wings as usual. Initially the Celtiberian infantry in a wedge formation forced the legions to give way but when cavalry on the wings had some success the infantry renewed their advance. Hard-pressed on all sides, the wedge collapsed and Celtiberi fled in disorder. It is said that only four thousand men out of their force escaped, whereas the Romans lost fewer than eight hundred. After the successes of Piso and Crispinus, the two years (184-83 BC) of 10Sempronius Longus (Ulterior) seem to have been quiet. 02Terentius Varro (Citerior) had several victories: in 184 BC against the Suessetani (northeast); and in 183 BC against the Ausetani (northeast), and the Celtiberi). At Carteia a Roman colony was founded in 171 BC.
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