Augustus (76; r.27-00-14) prepared invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC that had to be aborted, twice because of uprisings elsewhere, and once by the mistaken belief that the Britons were about to come to terms. In AD 40, Caligula (28; r.37-41) moved with his army, or part of it, to the Channel coast. This could also have been another intended invasion that had to be aborted at the last moment.
Three years later, Claudius-I (63; r.41-54) mounted an invasion force under the overall charge of the senator Aulus 01Plautius (fl.29-48). A pretext for the invasion was to reinstate Verica, the exiled king of the Atrebates. The invasion force included Legio II Augusta under the legate and future emperor Vespasian (69; fl.30-79); Legio XIV Gemina possibly under Vespasian’s brother the legate Flavius (4a) Sabinus (fl.45-69); and almost certainly Legio IX Hispana, probably under the legate Gnaeus Hosidius Geta (c.75; c.20-95+), and Legio XX Valeria Victrix because they are recorded in Britain soon after the invasion: all of which together with auxiliaries totalled some forty thousand men.
In his History of Rome, the only extant narrative of the invasion, Cassius Dio (c.80; c.155-c.235) does not indicate the route followed by Plautius to the Thames and so it can only be surmised. Dio tells us that the roman fleet, its departure delayed until late in the season due to a mutiny by the army, was ‘sent over in three divisions, in order that they should not be hindered in landing. [. . .] they put in to the island and found none to oppose them. For the Britons as a result of their inquiries had not expected that they would come, and had therefore not assembled beforehand.’
It is generally thought that the Roman fleet had sailed from Boulogne-sur-Mer/Gesoriacum, on the coast of northern France) and probably landed at Richborough/Rutupiæ, on the east coast of Kent, which has earthworks dating to that period. Other such sites have been proposed and there may have been multiple landings.
Plautius had trouble in finding the enemy, but when did find them, ‘he first defeated Caratacus and then Togodumnus, . . . gained by capitulation a part of the Bodunni, . . . and leaving a garrison there, he advanced farther and came to a river.’
The Dobunni (Dio’s ‘Bodunni’) lived near the Severn basin. Perhaps the British tribes had in fact assembled in southeast England and then disassembled on hearing the news. In which case the Dobunni, having taken several weeks to reach the Kent coast, could have been among the last to leave.
From Richborough, Plautius may have moved towards Canterbury/Cantiacorum, the Cantiaci’s main settlement (oppidum), at a fordable crossing point of the River Stour (Kent). The Cantiaci had long been friendly to Rome and its defenders would have either surrendered or fled allowing the Romans to cross the river and move westwards towards the British tribes’ main defensive position which almost certainly was on the west/left bank of the River Medway.
‘Plautius … sent across a detachment of Germans, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. These fell unexpectedly upon the enemy, but instead of shooting at any of the men they confined themselves to wounding the horses that drew their chariots.’
‘Plautius thereupon sent across Flavius Vespasian also and his brother Sabinus, [. . .] they, too, got across the river in some way and killed many of the foe, taking them by surprise. The survivors, however, did not take to flight, but on the next day joined issue with them again. The struggle was indecisive until Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, after narrowly missing being captured, finally managed to defeat the barbarians.’
‘Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean. [. . .] This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful.’
‘However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way upstream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them. Shortly afterwards Togodumnus perished. Plautius, instead of advancing farther, ‘proceeded to guard what he had already won, and sent for Claudius. [. . .] and, in fact, extensive equipment, including elephants, had already been got together for the expedition.’
Camulodunum/Colchester, Essex, previously the main settlement (oppidum) of the Trinovantes but by this time the capital of the Catuvellauni, was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne, Essex, bounding the site to the north and east, and a tributary (still called the Roman River) of the River Colne forming the southern boundary.
‘Claudius . . . crossed over to Britain, where he joined the legions that were waiting for him near the Thames. Taking over the command of these, he crossed the stream, and engaging the barbarians, who had gathered at his approach, he defeated them and captured Camulodunum . . . Thereupon he won over numerous tribes, in some cases by capitulation, in others by force.’ One of those that submitted to Claudius was Togidubnus, possibly the successor to Verica as king of the Atrebates. Then, declaring the province of Britannia founded, Claudius made Plautius its first governor (43-47) and left, having spent only sixteen days in Britain.
According to 59Cornelius Tacitus (c.64; c.56/57-c.120, biographer of 26Julius Agricola (53; r.78-84), the Romans grouped several tribes together under Tiberius 29aClaudius Togidubnus (r.c.43-c.80) – his Romanized name indicating that Claudius had bestowed Roman citizenship on him. The group eventually merged to become a single tribe called the Regnenses. A connection with Caratacus’ brother of similar name is tempting but cannot be demonstrated.
The Romans built six types of military installations during the first three centuries AD. Fortresses, forts, fortlets and towers were permanent quarters; marching camps and vexillation fortresses were temporary. Fortresses and marching camps were manned by legions (>5000 men) – marching camps supposedly built every night at the end of a day’s march while on campaign; forts were manned by auxiliaries (500 to over 1000 men recruited from occupied territories), and vexillation fortresses seem to have been manned by an amalgamation of units forming battlegroups (between 2500 and 4000 men). Fortlets were small or rudimentary forts tailored to particular tasks; towers were normally associated with one or more of three purposes: surveillance, signalling, or shooting missiles.
Claudius’ new province was only the area covered by the southeast of England and the move to conquer more areas began almost immediately. Firstly, XX Valeria Victrix built a legionary fortress at Camulodunum.
The three other legions headed out in different directions. Legio IX Hispana headed north, skirting the Iceni in Norfolk, by this time a Roman client kingdom, and crossing the River Nene built a vexillation fort at Longthorpe, a suburb of Peterborough in Cambridgeshire. Continuing northwards, the IXth built a vexillation fort at Leicester/Ratae on the River Soar, and a legionary fortress at Lincoln/Lindum Colonia on the River Witham. Meanwhile, the XIV Gemina headed northwestwards into the Midlands, establishing vexillation forts at Great Chesterford in Essex, Alchester in Oxfordshire, and Mancetter/Manduessedum in Warwickshire.
In 43 to 47, Vespasian commanding the II Augusta struck out for the southwest where tribes were notably hostile, particularly the Durotriges. 02Suetonius (c.53; c.69-122+) tells us that he ‘fought thirty battles, subjugated two warlike tribes (the Durotriges and Dumnonii) captured more than twenty oppida (Celtic fortified urban centres) and took the Isle of Wight’. Vespanian’s speedy advance was greatly aided by his use of the fleet to provide close support along the coast and along the river systems.
Plautius had conquered all the country south and east of a line drawn from the mouth of the Severn to the Wash. When Plautius retired he was replaced by 01Ostorius Scapula (r.47-52) who arrived in Britain just in time to confront serious uprisings in the west and north.
The warlike tribes in the hills of Wales, the Ordovices (central-north) and Silurians (southeast), and the Brigantes in northern England, persisted in ravaging the borders of the new province. Caratacus, having escaped, had found refuge among the Silurians and was now leading their forays.
To protect his rear, Scapula ordered all the provincials whose loyalty he suspected to be disarmed. This roused a general revolt, headed by the Iceni, in eastern England. They were joined by the Corieltauvi, living between the Wash and Humber, and the survivors of the Catuvellauni, and offered battle to Ostorius, choosing ground favourable to themselves, it being inaccessible to the Roman cavalry. Scapula attacked with his auxiliaries and won a complete victory (48).
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