Babylonian hegemony ended in October 539 BC when Babylon was captured by the Achaemenid Persians under Cyrus II (c.46; r.559-530 BC). The Persians seem to have accepted the Phoenicians almost as allies: Phoenician traders had access to the huge market provided by the empire while Persians used the Phoenician fleets in their wars against Egypt and Greece.
The Persians included the Phoenician ships in several engagements before the invasion of Greece. Herodotus (c.484-c.425 BC) records that a Phoenician fleet from Tyre supported the successful attack by Cambyses II (r.530-522 BC) on Egypt in 525 BC, but when ordered to sail against Carthage the Tyrians refused to make war against their daughter city and Cambyses abandoned the expedition.
Prior to the Ionian revolt (499-494 BC) the Phoenicians were defeated in their first encounter with the Ionian Greeks in a naval battle in the bay opposite Salamis, Cyprus. In 494 BC the Phoenicians entirely defeated Ionian Greeks in a naval battle near the island of Lade opposite Miletus. In the following year the Persians used the Phoenician fleet to attack the coastal cities of Thrace. The Phoenician ships then played a large part in the expeditions of Darius-I (c.64; r.522-486 BC) and Xerxes-I (c.54; r.486-465 BC) into Greece.
By the early fifth century BC Sidon had emerged as the pre-eminent Phoenician city-state. The primary reason for this appears to have been the superiority of its navy. The Persians used the city as their headquarters for the region and it was the governor’s residence throughout the Achaemenid era. A Persian garrison and a royal park were located there.
Cyprus
Humans have occupied Cyprus for at least 10,000 years. A number of Neolithic (c.6000-c.3500 BC) and Chalcolithic (c.3500-c.2500 BC) sites have been found scattered across the island. The Early Bronze Age (c.2500-c.1900 BC) was introduced to Cyprus by a new people from Anatolia, identified archaeologically as the Philia culture. At the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c.1900-c.1600 BC) fortresses were built at various places, a clear indication of unrest.
On the northeast coast the site of Enkomi was occupied during the Middle Bronze Age. Mycenaean Greeks may have settled on the island during the Late Bronze Age (c.1600-c.1050 BC). During the twelfth and eleventh centuries BC large waves of Achaean Greeks settled on Cyprus and spread the Greek language, customs and religious beliefs throughout the island. They established the cities of Kition (Latin: Citium), Kourion (Latin: Curium), Paphos and Salamis.
Around 1050 BC severe earthquakes destroyed Enkomi and other Late Bronze Age settlements and the island’s economy faltered. The island’s trade revived when in the eighth century BC the Phoenicians from Tyre established a new settlement on the site of Kition. Greek city-kingdoms were established at Amathus, Idalion, Kourion, Lapithos, Marion, Paphos, Salamis, Soli and Tamassos.
In 708 BC the kings of the city-states submitted to Sargon II (r.722-705 BC). After the fall of the Assyrian Empire (609 BC) rule passed first to Egypt during the reign of Ahmose II (r.570-526 BC) and then to the Persians in 526 BC. When Persian rule became increasingly harsh under Darius-I (c.64; r.522-486 BC) all the cities except Amathus joined the futile Ionian revolt in 499 BC.
In c.450 BC the Athenians mounted a campaign to liberate Cyprus. The Athenian commander Cimon (c.510-c.450 BC) laid siege to the Persian stronghold Kition. But when Cimon died the Athenians left Cyprus and the island settled to Persian control. By the Peace of Callias in 449 BC (disputed) a north-south boundary divided the Mediterranean into Greek and Persian spheres with the Persians masters of Cyprus.
Evagoras of Salamis (c.61; r.411-374 BC) was exiled by the Persians during his childhood. While in Cilicia, Evagoras gathered support and returned secretly in 411 BC to gain possession of the throne. For a time he maintained friendly relations with the Persians but from 391 BC they were virtually at war. Evagoras extended his rule over most of Cyprus, and took several cities in Phoenicia (including Tyre) and persuaded the Cilicians to revolt. The Persians invaded Cyprus in 381 BC but their troops rebelled. When Evagoras’ fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Kition he was compelled to flee to Salamis. A peace was concluded in 376 BC and Evagoras was allowed to remain nominally king of Salamis, but in reality a vassal of Persia. He was assassinated in 374 BC.
Sidon
At the beginning of the reign of Artaxerxes II (c.76; r.404-358 BC) the Persians were ejected from the whole of Egypt. In 373 BC Nectanebo-I (r.380-362 BC) defeated a Persian invasion. In 350 BC Artaxerxes III (c.87; r.358-338 BC) was defeated in yet another attempt to recapture Egypt. Soon after this defeat the leaders of Phoenicia, Asia Minor and Cyprus declared their independence. Artaxerxes sent Mazaeus (c.385-328 BC), satrap of Cilicia, and Belesys, satrap of Syria, to invade Sidon. Both suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes (r.358-345 BC), who was aided by 4000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II (r.360-343 BC) and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes (c.385-340 BC). Idrieus of Caria (r.351-344 BC) was sent to deal with the Cypriot rebels.
In 344 BC Cyprus surrendered, with the exception of Salamis, where Pnytagoras (r.351-322 BC) was besieged. In the same year Artaxerxes marched unopposed against Sidon at the head of 300,000 men. Tennes was executed with the council members and part of the population, while other Sidonians were sent to Babylon. Other Phoenician cities soon surrendered and Pnytagoras, who surrendered in 343 BC, was allowed to keep his throne. Tennes was succeeded by the pro-Persian Abdashtart II (=Straton II; 342-332 BC).
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