Sometime during the period of Seleucid rule a semi-nomadic tribe the Parni (or Aparni) moved from the area east of the Caspian Sea into Parthia. In 238 BC the Parni under their leader Arsaces-I (r.247-211 BC) invaded Parthia, killed Andragoras and annexed Hyrcania to the northwest. An expedition in 228 BC by Seleucus II (c.40; r.246-225 BC) to reclaim his territory was unsuccessful. In 209 BC Antiochus III (c.54; r.223-187 BC) recaptured Arsacid territory from Artabanus-I (r.211-291 BC), who sued for peace and accepted vassal status. Little is known of Phriapatius (r.191-176 BC). During the reign of his son Phraates-I (r.176-171 BC) numerous conquests of surrounding tribes were made and, dying, he left his crown to his brother Mithridates-I (c.57; r.171-138 BC).
Mithridates made Parthia into a major power. He waited for almost eleven years and then struck east and defeated the Graeco-Bactrian king Eucratides-I (r.170-145 BC). Mithridates then turned west and in 147 BC entered Media and occupied its capital Ecbatana. Moving south towards Mesopotamia he took the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon in 141/140 BC. He then withdrew to his residence in Hyrcania, but his forces pressed southwards to defeat the army of Elymais (=Elam) at Apamea. Soon afterwards, the Persians occupied Susa. In 139 BC Mithridates captured Demetrius II (r.145-138, 129-126 BC) and held him captive for ten years.
In 130 BC Mithridates’ son Phraates II (43; r.138-128 BC) was attacked by Antiochus VII (138-129 BC) and at the same time on the eastern border the movements of nomads had pushed the Saka (Sacae), who were of Iranian origin, into Parthian territory. After great initial success Antiochus was defeated and killed at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. This was the end of Seleucid rule east of the Euphrates. The Parthians confronted the Saka in the vicinity of modern Turkestan but were decisively defeated and Phraates was killed. The Saka then moved southwards into Drangiana which became known as Sakastan, today’s Sistan. Phraates’ son Artabanus II (r.128-124 BC) also died in a battle against the Saka.
Parthian preoccupation with fighting the Saka in the east of their country prevented the Parthians from establishing their control over Babylonia. Characene at the mouth of the Tigris broke away under their king Hyspaosines (=Aspasine; c.209-122/1 BC). He enlarged his realm and seems to have occupied Babylon and Seleucia c.127 BC. A triumphant campaign led by the Parthian general Himerus restored Parthian sovereignty but he apparently hoped to establish himself in the area.
In 124 BC Artabanus’ son Mithridates II (r.124-88 BC) attacked Characene and captured Hyspaosines’ capital one or two years later. Mithridates recovered Babylon and Seleucia and conquered parts of northern Mesopotamia, including the Hellenic city of Dura-Europos (c.113 BC). By the end of the second century BC the seat of Parthian power lay on the western part of the empire and Ctesiphon became the capital.
In about 113 BC the Chinese emperor Wu Ti (69; 141-87 BC) established direct relations with Mithridates. The Chinese opened a network of overland trade routes (the ‘Silk Road’) stretching from northwest China through northern Persia to the ports of Syria and the Black Sea.
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