Parthian preoccupation with fighting the Saka in the east of their country prevented the Parthians from establishing their control over Babylonia. Characene at the mouth of the Tigris broke away under their king Hyspaosines (=Aspasine; c.209-123/2 BC). He enlarged his realm and seems to have occupied Babylon and Seleucia c.127 BC. A triumphant campaign led by the Parthian general Himerus restored Parthian sovereignty but he apparently hoped to establish himself in the area.
In 123/2 BC Mithridates II of Parthia (r.124-88 BC) captured Hyspaosines’ capital, subjugated the northern Mesopotamian kingdoms of Adiabene, Gordyene and Osrhoene, and in 113 BC captured Dura-Europos in Syria. In 95 BC when Mithridates placed Tigranes II (85; r.95-55 BC) on the Armenian throne, Tigranes took advantage of struggles between various claimants to the Parthian throne to expand Armenian territory into Mesopotamia, and the small states in the north gave him their allegiance. In 69 BC the Roman general Lucullus (c.118-c.57 BC) captured Tigranes’ capital Tigranocerta, and Mesopotamia returned to Parthian rule. The political history of Mesopotamia was now to be dominated by wars between the Romans and the Persians.
The second century AD was a time of growth in wealth and influence of the caravan cities of Palmyra, Hatra and Mesene (formerly Characene). Internal rivalries in the Parthian state and control over the Armenian state enabled Trajan (63; r.98-117) to advance into Mesopotamia in 116. Adiabene and the entire northern basin of the Euphrates were incorporated as a province into the Roman Empire. Trajan advanced to the Persian Gulf, but he died of illness and his successor Hadrian (62; r.117-138) made peace, abandoning the conquest of Mesopotamia but retaining the client states. In 164-165 the Roman general Gaius Avidius Cassius (c.130-175) captured Ctesiphon and Seleucia but an epidemic forced the Romans to retreat and peace was restored.
In 198 Septimius Severus (65; r.193-211) invaded Mesopotamia to punish various rulers who had shown active support for Pescennius Niger (c.56; r.193-194). In 197 Severus took and sacked Ctesiphon and sold thousands of its inhabitants into slavery. Conflict between claimants to the Parthian throne gave Caracalla (29; r.211-217) an excuse to invade Adiabene but in 217 while travelling from Edessa he was assassinated at the roadside near Carrhae.
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