Ireland was never part of the Roman Empire, though Publius (Gaius?) 58Cornelius Tacitus (c.64; c.56/57-c.120) reports that in AD 81/2 his father-in-law Gnaeus 26Julius Agricola, (53; fl.58-93), governor of Britain (78-84), was of the opinion that Ivernia (Ireland) could be conquered and held down by one legion and a moderate contingent of auxiliaries.
In the first century AD Agricola completed the conquest of England so in Ireland, as might be expected, Roman material of that time is mostly found on the islands, coastal areas and the river valleys of the Irish east coast facing Roman Britain.
A sherd of first century AD Arretine ware of Italian origin was found at Ballinderry Crannog 2, Offaly, Leinster. Roman artefacts were also found at a promontory fort (which may have been a base for trade with Roman Britain) at Drumanagh, County Dublin, and also at Dalkey Island in Dublin Bay.
Late in the period, perhaps in the fourth century AD, the first indication of native Irish literacy appeared in the form of the ogham script in which the letters of the alphabet are defined by combinations of perpendicular lines and angled strokes, carved into a standing stone (burial or boundary), up (or across) joining or crossing a straight edge or incised line.
Myths
The mythology of pre-Christian Ireland was preserved in an oral tradition. With the arrival of /Christianity many of these tales were recorded in medieval Irish literature. Although Christian influence is seen in these manuscripts, this literature is the most extensive source of Celtic mythology. Scholars have organized the myths into four categories or ‘cycles’.
The Mythological Cycle is a conventional grouping within Irish mythology. It includes prose tales, verse texts, as well as pseudo-historical chronicles – primarily the Lebor Gabala Érenn, the Book of Invasions.
In the Ulster Cycle (stories survive in texts from the eighth century onwards), also known as the ‘Red Branch Cycle’, the prehistoric Ulaid are said to dominate Ulster with their capital at Emain Macha (Navan Fort) in County Armagh. The ‘Red Branch’ is a warrior band that is the guardian of Ulster. The stories are set in and around the reign of Conchobar mac Nessa, the Ulaid’s most illustrious king.
Cú Chulainn was a champion of Ireland and a hero of Greek legend. He was born as Setanta to the great god Lugh and Conchobar’s sister, Deichtine, both of whom were offspring of Cathbadh the druid. He acquired his new name when he killed a fierce dog belonging to Culann the smith, prompting Cathbadh the druid to declare that in future the boy would be known as Cú Chulainn, the ‘hound of Culann’.
In Tain Bo Cuailnge, the epic account of the ‘Cattle Raid of Cooley’, Cú Chulainn won every battle in the war against Connacht until Ulster was finally victorious. However, after the final battle he was lured into a hopeless encounter in which he was mortally wounded.
Connacht was ruled by Medb and her husband, King Ailill, who kept a formidable army. One day, when comparing their respective riches they found that they were of about equal wealth except that Ailill owned the marvellous White-Horned Bull. When Daire of Ulster refused to give her his similarly exceptional animal, the Brown Bull of Cooley, Medb gathered her army and so began the ruinous Cattle Raid of Cooley. She was later killed by Furbaide, son of Conchobar, who put a stone between her eyes with his slingshot.
In the Fenian Cycle (the stories survive from the twelfth century onwards) the chief hero is Fionn (Finn) mac Cumhaill, leader of the Fenian warband, the Fianna Éireann. The Fianna were employed by the High King to support him to protect his kingdom. They were eventually organized by the High King Cormac mac Airt, (3rd century AD), the grandson of Conn Cétchathach (2nd century AD), ‘of the Hundred Battles’. The stories about Finn concern members of his band rather than Finn himself. Their tales are set in Leinster and Munster.
An early tale tells of Finn growing up in a forest after his father Cumhaill, chief of the Fianna Cumhaill, was killed by Goll mac Morna, chief of the rival Clanna Morna, at the Battle of Cnucha (Castleknock). Finn triumphed over Goll mac Morna and became the head of the Fianna, which later included his son Oisin (Ossian), the poet, his grandson Oscar, Diarmaid (Dermor) and his former enemy Goll mac Morna.
Eventually Cormac died and his son Cairbre Lifechair (3rd century BC) decided to destroy the Fianna because he wanted to stop paying them for protection. The conflict culminated in the Battle of Gabhra, in which the Fianna were destroyed.
The Kings’ Cycle (stories survive from the eleventh century onwards) tells of mythical and historic kings from the third century BC to the eleventh century AD, comprising tales, dynastic groupings, and life and death of kings and kingdoms.
Druids
In pre-Christian times the religion of people in Gaul, Britain and Ireland was organized by the druids, who were the priests of their religion. Their status was based on the acceptance that by observing nature – how the rain fell, which way birds were flying, how the leaves changed colour – and by processing what they saw they could see into the future. They considered it profane to record their teachings in writing so all their stories were handed down by the spoken word. The kings of Ireland took all kinds of advice from the druids – what day to start a battle, when to sow crops, and whether to get married. Druids had to know the rituals, laws, customs and myths: thus was Celtic mythology preserved. The high gods of the pagan Irish were the Tuatha Dé Danann (‘folk of the Goddess Danu’). A description of the Celtic pantheon is found in the Lebor Gabala Érenn and the Fenian and Ulster cycles.
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